Abstract. Mitochondrial dysfunction is observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain, and the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide is known to induce mitochondrial dysfunction. The relative degree of mitochondrial dysfunction in different regions of the brain in AD is not completely understood. Moreover, the relationship between levels of synaptic mitochondrial Aβ and mitochondrial dysfunction has not been clearly established. Therefore synaptic and nonsynaptic mitochondria were isolated from the hippocampus, cortex, striatum, and amygdala of 12 month AβPPsw and AβPP+PS1 mouse models of AD as well as nontransgenic mice. Mitochondrial respiratory rates, reactive oxygen species production, membrane potential, and cytochrome c oxidase activity were measured. Hippocampal and cortical mitochondria showed the highest levels of mitochondrial dysfunction, while striatal mitochondria were moderately affected, and amygdalar mitochondria were minimally affected. Mitochondria from AβPP/PS1 brain regions were more impaired than those from AβPP mice. Mitochondrial Aβ levels nearly mirrored the extent of mitochondrial dysfunction. Synaptic mitochondria were more impaired than nonsynaptic mitochondria in the AD mouse models. The AβPP/PS1 mice showed more impairment in the cognitive interference task of working memory than the AβPP mice. The association between mitochondrial Aβ levels and mitochondrial dysfunction in mouse models of AD supports a primary role for mitochondrial Aβ in AD pathology. Moreover, the degree of cognitive impairment in AD transgenic mice can be linked to the extent of synaptic mitochondrial dysfunction and mitochondrial Aβ levels, suggesting that a mitochondrial Aβ-induced signaling cascade may contribute to cognitive impairment. Therapeutics that target this cascade could be beneficial in the treatment of AD.

Modulation of immune/inflammatory responses by diverse strategies including amyloid-beta (Abeta) immunization, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and manipulation of microglial activation states has been shown to reduce Alzheimer's disease (AD)-like pathology and cognitive deficits in AD transgenic mouse models. Human umbilical cord blood cells (HUCBCs) have unique immunomodulatory potential. We wished to test whether these cells might alter AD-like pathology after infusion into the PSAPP mouse model of AD. Here, we report a marked reduction in Abeta levels/beta-amyloid plaques and associated astrocytosis following multiple low-dose infusions of HUCBCs. HUCBC infusions also reduced cerebral vascular Abeta deposits in the Tg2576 AD mouse model. Interestingly, these effects were associated with suppression of the CD40-CD40L interaction, as evidenced by decreased circulating and brain soluble CD40L (sCD40L), elevated systemic immunoglobulin M (IgM) levels, attenuated CD40L-induced inflammatory responses, and reduced surface expression of CD40 on microglia. Importantly, deficiency in CD40 abolishes the effect of HUCBCs on elevated plasma Abeta levels. Moreover, microglia isolated from HUCBC-infused PSAPP mice demonstrated increased phagocytosis of Abeta. Furthermore, sera from HUCBC-infused PSAPP mice significantly increased microglial phagocytosis of the Abeta1-42 peptide while inhibiting interferon-gammainduced microglial CD40 expression. Increased microglial phagocytic activity in this scenario was inhibited by addition of recombinant CD40L protein. These data suggest that HUCBC infusion mitigates AD-like pathology by disrupting CD40L activity.

Converging lines of evidence indicate dysregulation of the key immunoregulatory molecule CD45 (also known as leukocyte common antigen) in Alzheimer's disease (AD). We report that transgenic mice overproducing amyloid-␤ peptide (A␤) but deficient in CD45 (PSAPP/CD45Ϫ/Ϫ mice) faithfully recapitulate AD neuropathology. Specifically, we find increased abundance of cerebral intracellular and extracellular soluble oligomeric and insoluble A␤, decreased plasma soluble A␤, increased abundance of microglial neurotoxic cytokines tumor necrosis factor-␣ and interleukin-1␤, and neuronal loss in PSAPP/CD45 Ϫ/Ϫ mice compared with CD45-sufficient PSAPP littermates (bearing mutant human amyloid precursor protein and mutant human presenilin-1 transgenes). After CD45 ablation, in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate an anti-A␤ phagocytic but proinflammatory microglial phenotype. This form of microglial activation occurs with elevated A␤ oligomers and neural injury and loss as determined by decreased ratio of anti-apoptotic Bcl-xL to proapoptotic Bax, increased activated caspase-3, mitochondrial dysfunction, and loss of cortical neurons in PSAPP/CD45 Ϫ/Ϫ mice. These data show that deficiency in CD45 activity leads to brain accumulation of neurotoxic A␤ oligomers and validate CD45-mediated microglial clearance of oligomeric A␤ as a novel AD therapeutic target.

Extracellular plaques of β-amyloid (Aβ) peptides are implicated in Alzheimer's Disease (AD) pathogenesis. Aβ formation is precluded by α-secretase, which cleaves within the Aβ domain of APP generating soluble APP-α(sAPP-α). Thus, α-secretase upregulation may be a target AD therapy. We previously showed green tea derived EGCG increased sAPP-α in AD mouse models. However, the comparable effective dose of EGCG in humans may exceed clinical convenience and/or safety. Epidemiological studies suggested fish oil consumption is associated with reduced dementia risk. Here we investigated whether oral co-treatment with fish oil (8 mg/kg/day) and EGCG (62.5 mg/kg/day, or 12.5 mg/kg/day) would reduce AD-like pathology in Tg2657 mice. In vitro co-treatment of N2a cells with fish oil and EGCG enhanced sAPP-α production compared to either compound alone (P<.001). Fish oil enhanced bioavailability of EGCG versus EGCG treatment alone (P<.001). Fish oil and EGCG had a synergetic effect on inhibition of cerebral Aβ deposits (P<.001) suggesting moderate supplementation with EGCG and fish oil have significant therapeutic potential for treatment of AD.