A comparative study on the performance of acid catalysts in the synthesis of levulinate ester using biomass‐derived levulinic acid: a review

Abstract

Non‐renewable resources have adverse effects on the environment, which result in global warming. Research has been shifted toward sustainable resources and lignocellulosic biomass is the best example of this. Lignocellulosic biomass is inexpensive, abundantly available and a rich source of carbon, which makes society less dependant on the use of fossil fuels. It is necessary for society to stop using petroleum‐based technologies and start developing more biomass‐based technologies. Lignocellulosic biomass can be converted into levulinic acid through various methods. Various value‐added chemicals are synthesized from levulinic acid, such as levulinate esters, acrylic acid, β‐acetyl acrylic acid, 1,4‐pentanediol, 2‐methyl tetrahydrofuran, γ‐valerolactone, etc. Among these, levulinate esters have received much attention owing to their broad applications as fuel additives, plasticizers and solvents in the pharmaceutical industries. Levulinate esters can be synthesized from the esterification reaction of levulinic acid and alcohol in the presence of either liquid or solid acid catalysts. Heterogeneous catalysts are favoured above homogeneous catalysts because of their properties, like being easy to separate, having good catalytic activity, being non‐corrosive to the reactor and having good recyclability. The performance of various heterogeneous catalysts such as zirconia, heteropolyacids, zeolite, carbonaceous material, resins and biocatalysts is reported in detail in the review. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Greening the Synthesis of Biorenewable Fuels and Chemicals by Stoichiometric Reagentless Organic Transformations

“…For example, IS or sorbitans can be esterified with various alkyl carboxylic acids under acid catalysis, forming novel oxygenates, surfactants, and plasticizers. , HMF and FAL are esterified with carboxylic acids to form compounds with potential applications as a fuel oxygenate and surfactant. , In the above cases, the carboxylic acid component is typically used in excess. On the other hand, during the esterification of biomass-derived carboxylic acids (e.g., LA, FA), the alcohol component is used in excess . In some cases, alcohol and carboxylic acid reactants are given equal importance.…”

“…On the other hand, during the esterification of biomass-derived carboxylic acids (e.g., LA, FA), the alcohol component is used in excess. 164 In some cases, alcohol and carboxylic acid reactants are given equal importance. For example, the acid-catalyzed esterification between FAL and FA is conducted in a nearly equimolar ratio to form furfuryl 2-furoate (Scheme 11).…”

Critical Review on the Synthesis of Levulinate Esters from Biomass-Based Feedstocks and Their Application

“…LEs can be prepared through effective hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass into C5/C6 carbohydrates and then undergo catalytic dehydration into LA with furan-derived compounds (furfuryl alcohol (FFA) and 5-HMF) as intermediates and then LA alcoholysis into LE products over the acid catalyst (Figure ). , This is represented as follows: (1) LEs can be synthesized from LA and alcohol over an acid catalyst. (2) LEs can be synthesized from FFA by hydrolysis, ring-opening, and rearrangement.…”

Antibiotic residue derived solid acids for ethanolysis of furfuryl alcohol into ethyl levulinate

“…9,10 Besides, ethyl levulinate is rich in functional groups such as ester groups and carbonyl groups, which can serve as the precursor or additive for the synthesis of industrial fragrances, coating products, and so on. 11,12 Typically, the catalytic synthesis of EL includes ethanolysis of biomass derivatives (levulinic acid, furfuryl alcohol (FA), 5-chloromethyl furfural) as well as one-step ethanolysis of biomass. [13][14][15][16][17][18][19] Generally, the one-pot synthesis of EL from biomass results in relatively low yields, along with the formation of some by-products.…”