A formalized safety system for closed-loop anesthesia with pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic constraints

Evaluation of Propofol General Anesthesia Intravenous Algorithm for Closed-Loop Drug Delivery System

“…2. During the induction and maintenance period, BIS values are measured using Schinder-based pharmacokinetic pharmacodynamics (PK-PD) [12] equations defined in [11,13,14]. The PK-PD characteristics will define the levels of drugs infused in all the parts of the body.…”

Physiological Closed-Loop Control (PCLC) Systems: Review of a Modern Frontier in Automation

“…From a control systems perspective, most of the controllers discussed have shown adequate performance. Additionally, some important studies recently have been done regarding safety systems for closed-loop of anesthesia [337], [338]. However, due to the safety critical nature of anesthesia and consequently restrictive laws, from the clinical point of view, no controller has been completely acceptable for use in a fully closed-loop anesthesia system yet.…”

Automated Anesthesia Systems

“…An extension of this system that manipulates both propofol and remifentanil infusion rates based only on the DoH index was developed using a modified habituating control framework (van Heusden et al 2018) and successfully tested on 127 patients undergoing surgical procedures (West et al 2018). An important feature of that system is its safety system that was designed using formal verification techniques (Yousefi et al 2019). Figure 2 depicts the complete system, including the NeuroSense monitor, the user interface, as well as the two infusion pumps.…”