A review on latest developments and future prospects of heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production from non-edible oils

SO42−/Sn-MMT Solid Acid Catalyst for Xylose and Xylan Conversion into Furfural in the Biphasic System

“…Moreover, the homogeneous catalyst can also lead to an extra neutralization step, a tedious purification process and an increase of production cost. Thus, the heterogeneous catalyst, which generally appears in solid form, acts in a dissimilar phase in the liquid reaction mixture [1], and is strongly desired to be developed due to its outstanding advantages such as environmental benefits, reusability, efficient conversion, easy separation and purification of the product [2].…”

“…Catalysts 2017, 7, 118 2 of 14 heterogeneous catalyst, which generally appears in solid form, acts in a dissimilar phase in the liquid reaction mixture [1], and is strongly desired to be developed due to its outstanding advantages such as environmental benefits, reusability, efficient conversion, easy separation and purification of the product [2]. The heterogeneous catalyst was widely applied in the production of furfural, which is a renewable bio-based chemical derived from the pentosan-rich lignocellulosic biomass with an annual production capacity of more than 200,000 tons [3], and which can be advantageous in many fields, such as oil refining, plastics and agrochemical industries.…”

Electro-Catalytic Biodiesel Production from Canola Oil in Methanolic and Ethanolic Solutions with Low-Cost Stainless Steel and Hybrid Ion-Exchange Resin Grafted Electrodes

“…Keywords: biodiesel, electro-catalytic conversion, ion-exchange resin, porous stainless steel electrodes, hybrid electrodes inTrODUcTiOn Biodiesels have become over the past decade a viable energy and renewable alternative to fossil fuel sources (Mardhiah et al, 2017). The culture of non-edible feedstocks or the use of vegetal or animal oils is particularly of interest as a route to value potential waste-products for direct energy generation (Ma and Hanna, 1999).…”

“…Canola oil was extensively investigated as a first-generation feedstock, particularly, in Australia due to being the second largest exporter of canola seed in the world, with an annual production between 2 to 3 million tons of oilseeds 1 (O'Connell et al, 2007). Biodiesels are produced through the transesterification of glycerides including tri, di and monoglycerides present in oils and fats, with alcohol molecules, such as methanol or ethanol (Mardhiah et al, 2017). Biodiesels produced using methanol consist of methyl esters (MEs) with variable carbon chain length and unsaturated bonds related to the oil and fat feedstock used (Yoon et al, 2014).…”

“…However, during the methoxide formation process, water molecules are formed and parasitic saponification reactions may occur, reducing the yield and quality of the final product (Mardhiah et al, 2017). In addition, for such systems, the removal of unreacted catalysts requires extra purification steps which may hamper the competitiveness of the process and increase the production cost of the biodiesels .…”