“…The rate of anthropogenic landscape degradation is increasing worldwide, especially in the African regions where a rapid human population is being experienced [ 21 , 22 ]. Further, ecosystems in the East African region are frequently restructuring due to complex societal and biophysical factors [ 23 ]. For example [ 24 ], revealed that fragmentation in East Africa is reflected by the increase in croplands by 34.8 % for the period 1998–2017 while 20 million hectares of woodlands had been converted to less woody classes due to fragmentation [ 42 ].…”