“…Past studies associated with measuring the impact of distracted driving on safety can be categorized into three types, including data analysis (Peng and Boyle, 2012; Qin et al , 2019; Jamil et al , 2021), driving simulator studies (Nowosielski et al , 2018; Xu and Lin, 2018; Arkonac et al , 2019; Zhang et al , 2019; Baldo et al , 2020) and field studies (Dingus et al , 2016; Ma et al , 2018; Arvin et al , 2019; Hernández-Rojas et al , 2019; Arvin and Khattak, 2020; Gao et al , 2021). Due to driving simulation providing a low-cost method for driver behavior data collection, most distracted driving studies were conducted in a simulator environment.…”