Association between increasing agricultural use of 2,4-D and population biomarkers of exposure: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2001–2014

Abstract

Background 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is one of the most extensively used herbicides in the United States. In 2012, 2,4-D was the most widely used herbicide in non-agricultural settings and the fifth most heavily applied pesticide in the US agricultural sector. The objective of this study was to examine trends in 2,4-D urinary biomarker concentrations to determine whether increases in 2,4-D application in agriculture are associated with increases in biomonitoring levels of urine 2,4-D. Methods Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) with available urine 2,4-D biomarker measurements from survey cycles between 2001 and 2014 were utilized. Urine 2,4-D values were dichotomized using the highest limit of detection (LOD) across all cycles (0.40 μg/L or 0.4 ppb). Agricultural use of 2,4-D was estimated by compiling publicly available federal and private pesticide application data. Logistic regression models adjusted for confounders were fitted to evaluate the association between agricultural use of 2,4-D and urine 2,4-D level above the dichotomization threshold. Results Of the 14,395 participants included in the study, 4681 (32.5%) had urine 2,4-D levels above the dichotomization threshold. The frequency of participants with high 2,4-D levels increased significantly (p < .0001), from a low of 17.1% in 2001–2002 to a high of 39.6% in 2011–2012. The adjusted odds of high urinary 2,4-D concentrations associated with 2,4-D agricultural use (per ten million pounds applied) was 2.268 (95% CI: 1.709, 3.009). Children ages 6–11 years (n = 2288) had 2.1 times higher odds of having high 2,4-D urinary concentrations compared to participants aged 20–59 years. Women of childbearing age (age 20–44 years) (n = 2172) had 1.85 times higher odds than men of the same age. Conclusions Agricultural use of 2,4-D has increased substantially from a low point in 2002 and it is predicted to increase further in the coming decade. Because increasing use is likely to increase population level exposures, the associations seen here between 2,4-D crop application and biomonitoring levels require focused biomonitoring and epidemiological evaluation to determine the extent to which rising use and exposures cause adverse health outcomes among vulnerable populations (particularly children and women of childbearing age) and highly exposed individuals (farmers, other herbicide applicators, and their families).

2,4-D Herbicide-Induced Hepatotoxicity: Unveiling Disrupted Liver Functions and Associated Biomarkers

“…The studies identified in the review were conducted by research groups from 23 countries, most notably the USA ( n = 17; 20%), Brazil ( n = 11; 13%) and Turkey ( n = 9; 11%) ( Figure 2 b). In both countries, agriculture plays a significant economic role, and 2,4-D is widely commercialized [ 14 , 17 ].…”

“…In the United States, approximately 600 agricultural and residential products contain 2,4-D as the active ingredient. Furthermore, in 2012, it was the fifth most widely applied herbicide in the agricultural sector of the country [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. In Argentina, over 2000 tons of 2,4-D are employed in various crop types, particularly in glyphosate-tolerant corn and soybean cultivation [ 11 , 16 ].…”

Concentraciones de glifosato y 2,4-diclorofenoxiacético en granos, hojas y suelos en cultivos de cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) en la región San Martín, Perú

“…Debemos indicar entonces que las concentraciones de 2,4-D encontrados en 15 de las 16 muestras de cacao, superan los LMR para cacao en grano (Theobroma cacao L.) que establece el "Reglamento (UE) 2019/1791 de la Comisión Europea", el cual limita a 0,1 mg/kg (ppm) de 2,4-D en el mencionado alimento. Este herbicida (2,4-D) es uno de los más manejados a nivel mundial, el cual se emplea para controlar las malezas en países tanto de América Latina, como en los Estados Unidos (Freisthler et al, 2022). Este agroquímico es un competidor de la hormona auxina, aplicado para limitar el crecimiento de malezas de hoja ancha en el cultivo de cereales, granos y caña de azúcar, además de pastos (Brucha et al, 2021).…”

Health effects of herbicides and its current removal strategies

“…The first commercially used herbicide reported was 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2,4-D [ 19 ]. In practice, 2,4-D is a herbicide generally used in non-agricultural contexts, and in 2012, it was the fifth most widely used herbicide in the US agricultural sector [ 20 ]. The highest cause for crop loss is weeds, accounting for 34% of loss.…”