“…In related punishment-based models, reward seeking actions also result in the delivery of noxious or otherwise aversive stimulus, such as footshock, or a bitter taste. A history of escalated use of several drugs, including cocaine, alcohol, and opiates promotes punishment resistance ( Vanderschuren and Everitt, 2004 ; Pelloux et al, 2007 ; Marchant et al, 2013 ; Hopf and Lesscher, 2014 ; Blackwood et al, 2020 ; Monroe and Radke, 2021 ; Domi et al, 2021 ). Notably, these tasks are particularly useful for assessing individual differences in addiction-like behavior, as only a subset of animal subjects will persist in drug seeking in the face of high cost ( Shaham et al, 2003 ; Everitt and Robbins, 2005 ; Cooper et al, 2007 ; Vanderschuren et al, 2017 ; Giuliano et al, 2018 ).…”