Benefits from hazards, benefits from nothing, and benefits from benefits: the combined effects of five quaternary ammonium compounds to Vibrio qinghaiensis Q67

Abstract

Background Co-exposure of multiple quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) is widely present in the aquatic environment. The knowledge about their toxicities to microorganism at low concentration is lacking. This study aims to test the toxic response of Vibrio qinghaiensis Q67 (12-h exposure) to individual and mixtures of QACs by the long-term microplate toxicity analysis method (L-MTA). Results Hormetic effects were observed for five individual QACs at 12-h exposure of Vibrio qinghaiensis Q67. The maximum stimulation effect of − 339.66% was present in the 0.00561 mol/L tetraethylammonium bromide solution. A stimulation effect (− 23.55%) was detected when each of QACs in the five-component mixture was present at 50% effect concentration (“benefits from hazards”). In addition, significant stimulation effects (− 96.28%) were observed for five QACs combined at the zero-effect point concentration (“benefits from nothing”). Further, a significant stimulation effect (− 406.16%) was observed when each of QACs was co-exposed at its maximum stimulation effect concentration. This phenomenon was termed “benefits from benefits”. Conclusions The results suggest that both single and mixture of QACs presented hormetic effects. Benefits from hazards, benefits from nothing, and benefits from benefits were observed for the QACs mixtures.

Disinfectant-induced hormesis: An unknown environmental threat of the application of disinfectants to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection during the COVID-19 pandemic?

“…These chemicals are used for both hand and surface sanitizer products and are among the most widely applied disinfectants during the current pandemic (Dhama et al, 2021;Jing et al, 2020; World Health Organization (WHO), 2020). Importantly, hormesis was induced by not only single chemicals but also mixtures, specifically in studies with QACs, which can display also additive or synergistic effects (Mo et al, 2020); hormetic effects of complex mixtures of chemicals have also been reported by numerous other studies (Docea et al, 2019;Tsatsakis et al, 2019). Extensive experimentation with yeast subjected to a series of dilutions of numerous disinfectants revealed that most of the disinfectants induced toxicity followed by an overcompensation stimulation (Branham, 1929).…”

“…1). Examples of such chemicals shown to induce hormesis include chlorine-based chemicals (Zhang et al, 2008), H 2 O 2 (Huang et al, 2019;Ludovico and Burhans, 2014;Semchyshyn, 2014;Semchyshyn and Valishkevych, 2016), various QACs (Hrubec et al, 2021;Li et al, 2019;Mo et al, 2020), and ethanol (Calabrese and Baldwin, 2003;Kar et al, 2021;Semchyshyn, 2014). These chemicals are used for both hand and surface sanitizer products and are among the most widely applied disinfectants during the current pandemic (Dhama et al, 2021;Jing et al, 2020; World Health Organization (WHO), 2020).…”

Quaternary ammonium compounds of emerging concern: Classification, occurrence, fate, toxicity and antimicrobial resistance

“…Similarly, the joint action of ATMAC C16 and fluoranthene (Flu) also shifted from a synergetic toxic effect to an antagonistic effect when the levels of Flu grew from 50 µg/L to 200 µg/L ( Yu et al, 2013 ). When the mixture of QACs is present in low concentrations in the environment, some hormetic effects are observed ( Agathokleous et al, 2022 , Mo et al, 2020 ). It may enhance the propagation of pathogenic microbes and increase the spread of antibiotic resistance.…”

Similarities and Differences in Quorum Sensing-Controlled Bioluminescence between Photobacterium phosphoreum T3 and Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67

“…Hormesis describes a dose-effect relationship characterized by low-dose stimulation and high-dose inhibition. The hormetic effects of heavy metals [37], sulfonamides [38] and ionic liquids [39] on luminescent bacteria have been reported.…”