Breakfast Frequency and Quality May Affect Glycemia and Appetite in Adults and Children

Abstract

Observational studies of breakfast frequency in children and adults suggest an inverse (protective) association between the frequency of eating breakfast and the risk for obesity and chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes. More prospective studies with stronger designs are needed, as are experimental studies on this topic. In addition, above and beyond breakfast frequency, the roles of dietary quality and composition need to be studied in the context of eating or skipping breakfast. Experimental studies are also necessary to rigorously test causality and biological mechanisms. Therefore, we conducted 2 pilot experimental studies to examine some of the effects of breakfast skipping and breakfast composition on blood glucose and appetite in children and adults. Our results suggest that breakfast frequency and quality may be related in causal ways to appetite controls and blood sugar control, supporting the hypothesis that the breakfast meal and its quality may have important causal implications for the risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Factors associated with breakfasting in users of a public health service

“…In agreement with other studies 6,7,10 , the present study found an association between not smoking and breakfasting frequently. Smoking may reduce appetite in the morning and encourage the smoker to skip this meal 7 .…”

“…There are only a few studies that approach the factors associated with skipping breakfast. In general, they report a positive association between breakfasting and healthy lifestyles, such as not smoking, being physically active, controlling body weight and avoiding alcoholic beverages 3,6,7,10,24 .…”

“…Making smaller meals, including breakfast, is mentioned in the literature as a way to avoid eating too much, which helps to control weight and avoid excess weight-associated comorbidities 9,10,25 .…”

“…Although skipping breakfast was unusual, it may lead to nutritional deficiencies and increase the intake of energydense foods, favoring the development of diseases 8,10,23 . There are only a few studies that approach the factors associated with skipping breakfast.…”

“…Hence, breakfast has been associated with positive health effects 6,9 , such as increased satiety, smaller daily energy intake, better glycemic control 10 , lower risk of gaining weight 3,6,7 and visceral fat 9 , and lower risk of weight-related comorbidities, such as hypertension, diabetes Mellitus and cardiovascular diseases 7,10 .…”