Broca's region and Visual Word Form Area activation differ during a predictive Stroop task

Abstract

Competing theories attempt to explain the function of Broca's area in single word processing. Studies have found the region to be more active during processing of pseudo words than real words and during infrequent words relative to frequent words and during Stroop (incongruent) color words compared to Non-Stroop (congruent) words. Two related theories explain these findings as reflecting either "cognitive control" processing in the face of conflicting input or a linguistic prediction error signal, based on a predictive coding approach. The latter implies that processing cost refers to violations of expectations based on the statistical distributions of input. In this fMRI experiment we attempted to disentangle single word processing cost originating from cognitive conflict and that stemming from predictive expectation violation. Participants (N = 49) responded to whether the words "GREEN" or "RED" were displayed in green or red (incongruent vs congruent colors). One of the colors, however, was presented three times as often as the other, making it possible to study both congruency and frequency effects independently. Auditory stimuli saying "GREEN" or "RED" had the same distribution, making it possible to study frequency effects across modalities. We found significant behavioral effects of both incongruency and frequency. A significant effect (p < .05 FWE) of incongruency was found in Broca's region, but no effect of frequency was observed and no interaction. Conjoined effects of incongruency and frequency were found in parietal regions as well as in the Visual Word Form Area (VWFA). No interaction between perceptual modality and frequency was found in VWFA suggesting that the region is not strictly visual. These findings speak against a strong version of the prediction error processing hypothesis in Broca's region. They support the idea that prediction error processes in the intermediate timeframe are allocated to more posterior parts of the brain.

Klinefelter syndrome has increased brain responses to auditory stimuli and motor output, but not to visual stimuli or Stroop adaptation

“…No regions displayed greater activation for the high frequency stimuli than for the low frequency. Again, these effects are comparable to those observed for Controls alone ( Wallentin et al, 2015 ).…”

“…Fifty-three participants out of this group also completed the fMRI experiment. Two participants were excluded due to artifacts in the EPI-images and two were excluded due to poor performance in the behavioral task (see Wallentin et al, 2015 for details).…”

“…Only peaks > 10 mm apart are reported. Effects that have previously been reported based on the Controls alone ( Wallentin et al, 2015 ) are only briefly summarized ( Fig. 5 ).…”

“…The Stroop task ( Stroop, 1935 ) involves inhibiting a trained response (reading a word) in order to provide an untrained response (naming the color of the letters of the word) and is known to yield increased responses in Broca's region ( Novick et al, 2010 , Wallentin et al, 2015 ). Based on this we hypothesized that our KS participants would have greater responses in this region compared to Controls.…”

“…Adaptation due to high frequency stimuli have been found to yield decreased responses in parietal areas ( Wallentin et al, 2015 ) and we hypothesized that KS participants would have a smaller decrease than Controls due to a potential deficit in short-term adaptability.…”