Choice, control, and animal welfare: definitions and essential inquiries to advance animal welfare science

Abstract

The ways in which humans can support good welfare for animals in their care is an ongoing subject of debate: some place emphasis on the animals’ physical health; others, on animals’ ability to live “natural lives”; and others on animals’ affective states or psychological wellbeing. Recently, there has been an increase in interest in how an animal’s ability to exercise control over its environment could impact their welfare. In this article, we take the stance that the relevant aspects of the first two concepts of animal welfare (physical health, natural lives) are largely addressed when an animal’s psychological wellbeing is prioritized. Through that lens, we review the current state of the literature regarding the psychology of control, and the intersection between choice, control, and welfare. We clarify terms to support future work, and propose future directions that could lead to a better understanding of the psychological benefits of choice and control and ultimately inform animal care decisions.

A Reexamination of the Relationship between Training Practices and Welfare in the Management of Ambassador Animals

“…While often used as if they are one word or concept (i.e., giving more choice and control = improved welfare) the terms are distinct. Choice is the animal’s ability to choose between multiple relatively salient behavioral options while control refers to an animal’s ability to produce desired results, such as producing an expected effect [ 12 ]. Individuals exercise control over the environment by making choices [ 13 ].…”

“…When caregivers respond to these subtle signals in ways that make an animal more comfortable, as determined by its body language, they give the animal more choice, more control, and a vote in deciding what the caregiver should do in a particular situation. Having multiple opportunities to make choices and have more control over the contingencies in their lives gives animals a higher degree of freedom [ 31 ] and improved welfare [ 12 , 13 , 16 , 17 ].…”

“…Exposing an animal to inescapable aversive stimuli-eventually the animal gives up trying to escape, even when escape is made easily achievable [12,26].…”

“…These standards also include descriptions of the value of ambassador animals in audience engagement, delivering educational messages, enrichment, and planning. However, there is little mention in these standards of how ambassador animals should be trained to participate in programs, even though inappropriate training methods are associated with significant negative impacts on animal welfare [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. Furthermore, there is a dearth of published empirical research or theory that can inform best practices for specifically meeting the welfare needs of ambassador animals being handled in programs.…”

Dolphin-WET—Development of a Welfare Evaluation Tool for Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) under Human Care

“…Lastly, the facility’s policy towards choice and control is evaluated. Recent advances in zoo animal research have demonstrated that affording animals the opportunities to choose between two or more possibilities—for example, staying in the inside or outside part of their enclosure—benefits their overall welfare [ 144 , 145 , 146 ]. To grant dolphins a degree of choice and control and to respond to individual preferences, they could, for example, be allowed to choose between different enrichment devices or types of positive reinforcement.…”