Circulating Biomarkers for Cardiovascular Disease Risk Prediction in Patients With Cardiovascular Disease

Abstract

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death globally. Risk assessment is crucial for identifying at-risk individuals who require immediate attention as well as to guide the intensity of medical therapy to reduce subsequent risk of CVD. In the past decade, many risk prediction models have been proposed to estimate the risk of developing CVD. However, in patients with a history of CVD, the current models that based on traditional risk factors provide limited power in predicting recurrent cardiovascular events. Several biomarkers from different pathophysiological pathways have been identified to predict cardiovascular events, and the incorporation of biomarkers into risk assessment may contribute to enhance risk stratification in secondary prevention. This review focuses on biomarkers related to cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, including B-type natriuretic peptide, high-sensitivity cardiac troponin I, adiponectin, adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein, heart-type fatty acid-binding protein, lipocalin-2, fibroblast growth factor 19 and 21, retinol-binding protein 4, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, and proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9, and discusses the potential utility of these biomarkers in cardiovascular risk prediction among patients with CVD. Many of these biomarkers have shown promise in improving risk prediction of CVD. Further research is needed to assess the validity of biomarker and whether the strategy for incorporating biomarker into clinical practice may help to optimize decision-making and therapeutic management.

Oxidative Stress in the Pathogenesis of Aorta Diseases as a Source of Potential Biomarkers and Therapeutic Targets, with a Particular Focus on Ascending Aorta Aneurysms

“…Accordingly, biomarkers may be derived from clinical features, such as blood, ref. [ 7 ] fluid [ 8 ] or tissue investigations (for several “-omics”, e.g., genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, microbiomics, etc. ); clinical outcome scales; imaging data; physiologic testing; histological analyses and biochemical studies, just to mention a few.…”

Plasma Levels of Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin Type 9 Are Inversely Associated with N-Terminal Pro B-Type Natriuretic Peptide in Older Men and Women

“…The major determinants of PCSK9 levels and their impact on the onset of CV risk factors, vascular damage and CV events are still debated, given the disagreement of several previous studies on these topics [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Our results expand the knowledge on the metabolic role of cardiac NPs in the regulation of lipid metabolism.…”

Novel Biomarkers of Atherosclerotic Vascular Disease—Latest Insights in the Research Field

“…The concept of biomarker was introduced in 1980 [14,15], representing a biological parameter with the role of objectively quantifying different indicators of normal biologic processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention [16,17]. High sensitivity, high repeatability of results, and an economically or logistically easy clinical applicability represent the ideal characteristics of a biomarker [18]. The use of classical biomarkers represented by LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, or serum triglycerides is only useful in patients with a high or very high cardiovascular risk, which has led over time to the discovery of molecules specific to the stages of the atherosclerotic process [19,20] (Figure 3).…”