Colour in context. Pigments and other coloured residues from the Early-Middle Holocene site of Takarkori (SW Libya)

Abstract

We present the multidisciplinary investigation of pigments and artefacts with traces of colour from the Early- Middle Holocene site of Takarkori, located in the Tadrart Acacus Mountains (central Sahara, SW Libya). Here, geological, archaeological, taphonomic and chemical studies (Raman, Fourier-transform infrared, X-ray powder diffraction, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry) are used to examine a vast range of artefacts (raw materials, grinding stones,\ud painted items, as well as lithic, bone, wooden and ceramic tools) equally distributed from Late Acacus contexts related to hunter-gatherers (ca. 8900–7400 uncal years bp) to pastoral groups (ca. 7400–4500 uncal years bp). The exploited minerals (goethite, hematite, kaolinite and jarosite, among others) are locally procured and processed using quartzarenite grinding stones of different shapes and sizes. Thermal treatment of the minerals is also suggested by X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) and Raman studies. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses show the addition of a lipid binder to small lumps of pigments in order to obtain a sticky product. Their fatty acid distribution differs from the residues on grinding stones, pointing to a specific use of these lumps. The grinding stones have also been used to crush and pulverize the pigments and as base for colour preparation. A sample of colour from a fallen painted slab referable to late pastoral phases shows the presence of a binder, chemically identified as casein. Taken together, the evidence collected at Takarkori conveys to suggest an articulated chaîne opératoire, not only directed towards the preparation of pigments for the parietal rock art but also to other non-utilitarian functions, such as body care and ornamentation and decoration of artefacts

Mineral Pigments in Archaeology: Their Analysis and the Range of Available Materials

“…Dutrisac et al [77] claims that jarosite group minerals were being exploited at Rio Tinto in Spain from 1200 BCE. Jarosite yellow ochres have been identified on painted objects from the 9 ka site of Takarkori, Libya by di Lernia et al [82] and jarosite has also been detected in Australian Aboriginal rock art in the Kimberley region [83,84].…”

Raman spectroscopy of minerals and mineral pigments in archaeometry

“…A comprehensive discussion on the origin of hematite (natural or by heating goethite) and on iron oxide phases is given; carbon black, anatase, Mn 3 O 4 are observed in some samples. Di Lernia et al analysed pigments and coloured residues from the Early–Middle Holocene site of Takarkori (SW Libya), and found jarosite and kaolinite, in addition to hematite and goethite. A recent work by Huntley et al on ‘mulberry rock art’ reports at least two distinct mineral mulberry pigments, jarosite KFe 3 (OH) 6 (SO 4 ) 2 and hematite, on the basis of elemental analysis (SEM‐EDS analysis and X‐ray fluorescence spectroscopy).…”

Immunological Methods for the Detection of Binders in Ancient Tibetan Murals

“…Casein binder has a long history. It has been found acting as a binder in the painted stones of the 8000-year-old Takarkori Ruins in the Libyan Sahara (Di Lernia et al, 2016), and has also been found in Ancient Egyptian relics (Ren et al, 2016). It is also commonly used in traditional European murals, and continues to be used until now.…”