Compound K Production: Achievements and Perspectives

Abstract

Compound K (CK) is one of the major metabolites found in mammalian blood and organs following oral administration of Panax plants. CK, also known as minor ginsenoside, can be absorbed in the systemic circulation. It has garnered significant attention in healthcare and medical products due to its pharmacological activities, such as antioxidation, anticancer, antiproliferation, antidiabetics, neuroprotection, and anti-atherogenic activities. However, CK is not found in natural ginseng plants but in traditional chemical synthesis, which uses toxic solvents and leads to environmental pollution during the harvest process. Moreover, enzymatic reactions are impractical for industrial CK production due to low yield and high costs. Although CK could be generated from major ginsenosides, most ginsenosides, including protopanaxatriol-oleanane and ocotillol-type, are not converted into CK by catalyzing β-glucosidase. Therefore, microbial cell systems have been used as a promising solution, providing a safe and efficient approach to CK production. This review provides a summary of various approaches for the production of CK, including chemical and enzymatic reactions, biotransformation by the human intestinal bacteria and endophytes as well as engineered microbes. Moreover, the approaches for CK production have been discussed to improve the productivity of target compounds.

Endophytic fungi of Panax sokpayensis produce bioactive ginsenoside Compound K in flask fermentation

“…Several methods for ginsenoside production are being sourced to meet this demand. Presently, the methods employed for CK production include microbial engineering, biotransformation, enzymatic and chemical processes 57 , 62 – 64 . The latter two processes are deemed expensive and low-yielding, bringing the focus on the former two with a preference for biotransformation.…”

Bioconversion, Pharmacokinetics, and Therapeutic Mechanisms of Ginsenoside Compound K and Its Analogues for Treating Metabolic Diseases

“…Therefore, several studies have concentrated on using various techniques, including hydrolysis, enzymatic biotransformation, microbial transformation, etc., to convert major ginsenosides to CK. Additionally, endophyte biotransformation is an effective technique within microbial transformation because of its low cost, excellent selectivity, accuracy, and environmental safety [ 10 ]. Chemical hydrolysis conditions led to the nonspecific cleavage of glycone moieties at position 20, which in turn caused side reactions of hydroxylation, hydration, and epimerization.…”

“…microbial transformation, etc., to convert major ginsenosides to CK. Additionally, end phyte biotransformation is an effective technique within microbial transformation b cause of its low cost, excellent selectivity, accuracy, and environmental safety [10]. Che ical hydrolysis conditions led to the nonspecific cleavage of glycone moieties at positi 20, which in turn caused side reactions of hydroxylation, hydration, and epimerizatio Furthermore, these methods proved to increase environmental contamination [48,49].…”

“…Human gut bacteria and endophytes have been reported to use deglycosylated processes to bio-convert CK products. In the past year, yeasts have been metabolically altered by enzymes has become a viable alternative for producing CK [ 10 ]. According to current research, CK possesses pharmacological properties that include hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-diabetic, anti-allergic, neuro-protective, and anti-aging activities [ 11 ].…”