Consistent Changes in Land-Use/Land-Cover in Semi-Arid Areas: Implications on Ecosystem Service Delivery and Adaptation in the Limpopo Basin, Botswana

Abstract

Ecosystems in semi-arid areas remain essential to securing livelihoods and aiding climate change adaptation. However, land-use and land-cover change (LULCC) is the leading driver of biodiversity, ecosystem services, habitat, and ecosystem loss in most rural areas of developing countries. We evaluated LULCC in the Bobirwa sub-district of Botswana between 1995 and 2015. We employed the supervised classification’s maximum likelihood algorithm on the 1995, 2005, and 2016 Landsat images to establish the implications of LULCC on the delivery of provisioning ecosystem services (ES) and ecosystem-based adaptation in the Limpopo Basin part of Botswana. Five major LULC classes—vegetation, cropland, bare land, built-up areas, and water bodies—were identified in the sub-district. The decline in vegetation by 50.67 km2/year between 1995 and 2016 was characterized by an increase in croplands (34.02 km2/year). These changes were attributed to the growing human population that induced farming households to expand croplands. Government programs also encouraged agricultural expansions by offering free inputs and compensating smallholder farmers for land preparation. Higher agricultural yields remained critically low while the loss of vegetated areas to croplands threatened biodiversity, habitats, and the sustainability of provisioning ES through impaired ecosystem functions. There is an urgent need to arrest all unnecessary agricultural expansions and enhance agricultural productivity from current land parcels. The government and other relevant stakeholders also need to strengthen the ecosystem management capacities of local communities and support them to develop and implement biodiversity-based village action plans. Engaging communities through participatory, biodiversity-based action planning promotes biodiversity conservation and the sustainable use of ecosystem resources.

The utilization and contribution of timber and non-timber forest products to livelihoods under a changing climate in the Limpopo River Basin

“…Households simultaneously engaged in livestock and crop production thus have a 'three-home' system i.e. village, cattle post, and crop fields-the latter two usually have temporary structures [17].…”

“…Many households in the study area depend on rain-fed agriculture (maize, sorghum, millet, cowpeas, groundnuts, round nuts, and watermelons) [17] and forest products such as timber, firewood, Mopane caterpillars (Imbrasia belina), wild fruits, thatch, and palm leaves (Hyphaene petersiana) for basketry. These are also harvested or gathered from privately owned lands, often illegally without owners' permission as these are under private tenure [17,28]. Cattle, goats, and free-range chickens also form an important source of income, albeit on a subsistence level [14].…”

“…Therefore, they serve as a vital safety net, offering not only direct access to edible foods, fruits, insects, and income from their sale but also a source of various raw materials [4]. But, the conversion of land such as for agricultural expansion often result in the loss of these essential ecosystem products, consequently diminishing the livelihoods and well-being of local communities [17,18]. However, the examination of the trade-offs between essential ecosystem products and cultivated crops remains limited in current research.…”

“…For instance, considering the case of cropland expansion, often employed as an adaptation measure in response to frequent droughts. While it may serve as a short-term solution, it simultaneously results in the loss of natural forests and land fragmentation, both of which disrupt the delivery of essential ecosystem products [17,18].…”

Toddy trees and rice-farms: understanding their support to ecology and livelihoods in Rote island

“…As most of the ENT region belongs to semi-arid and dryland, the forest areas in ENT are also under the dry-forest category and scattered into relatively small spots across the archipelago. The semi-arid area forms a unique ecosystem and biodiversity [2], which is essential for securing livelihoods, climate change adaptation, and food security [3,4]. They also provide important ecosystem services such as controlling erosion and preventing desertification.…”