Creatine – its Chemical Synthesis, Chemistry, and Legal Status

Pischel, Ivo; Gastner, Thomas

doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6486-9_15

Cited by 20 publications

(15 citation statements)

References 16 publications

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“…years), (Kreider et al 2003; Francaux and Poortmans 2006; Persky and Rawson 2007; Bender et al 2008a). However, the most relevant issue with respect to potential side effects of Cr, namely the chemical purity of the Cr used, is definitely an issue (Pischel and Gastner 2007). Many of the pleiotropic effects of Cr for sports, health and disease are discussed in detail in this volume.…”

Section: Creatine—nutritional Constituent and Supplementationmentioning

confidence: 99%

The creatine kinase system and pleiotropic effects of creatine

2011

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The pleiotropic effects of creatine (Cr) are based mostly on the functions of the enzyme creatine kinase (CK) and its high-energy product phosphocreatine (PCr). Multidisciplinary studies have established molecular, cellular, organ and somatic functions of the CK/PCr system, in particular for cells and tissues with high and intermittent energy fluctuations. These studies include tissue-specific expression and subcellular localization of CK isoforms, high-resolution molecular structures and structure–function relationships, transgenic CK abrogation and reverse genetic approaches. Three energy-related physiological principles emerge, namely that the CK/PCr systems functions as (a) an immediately available temporal energy buffer, (b) a spatial energy buffer or intracellular energy transport system (the CK/PCr energy shuttle or circuit) and (c) a metabolic regulator. The CK/PCr energy shuttle connects sites of ATP production (glycolysis and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation) with subcellular sites of ATP utilization (ATPases). Thus, diffusion limitations of ADP and ATP are overcome by PCr/Cr shuttling, as most clearly seen in polar cells such as spermatozoa, retina photoreceptor cells and sensory hair bundles of the inner ear. The CK/PCr system relies on the close exchange of substrates and products between CK isoforms and ATP-generating or -consuming processes. Mitochondrial CK in the mitochondrial outer compartment, for example, is tightly coupled to ATP export via adenine nucleotide transporter or carrier (ANT) and thus ATP-synthesis and respiratory chain activity, releasing PCr into the cytosol. This coupling also reduces formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inhibits mitochondrial permeability transition, an early event in apoptosis. Cr itself may also act as a direct and/or indirect anti-oxidant, while PCr can interact with and protect cellular membranes. Collectively, these factors may well explain the beneficial effects of Cr supplementation. The stimulating effects of Cr for muscle and bone growth and maintenance, and especially in neuroprotection, are now recognized and the first clinical studies are underway. Novel socio-economically relevant applications of Cr supplementation are emerging, e.g. for senior people, intensive care units and dialysis patients, who are notoriously Cr-depleted. Also, Cr will likely be beneficial for the healthy development of premature infants, who after separation from the placenta depend on external Cr. Cr supplementation of pregnant and lactating women, as well as of babies and infants are likely to be of benefit for child development. Last but not least, Cr harbours a global ecological potential as an additive for animal feed, replacing meat- and fish meal for animal (poultry and swine) and fish aqua farming. This may help to alleviate human starvation and at the same time prevent over-fishing of oceans.

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Section: Creatine—nutritional Constituent and Supplementationmentioning

confidence: 99%

The creatine kinase system and pleiotropic effects of creatine

2011

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“…Creatine is known to decompose to creatinine in the presence of moisture, low ph or elevated temperature (Edgar and Shiver, 1925;Pischel and Gastner, 2007), and this degradation is likely to occur also in meat. Indeed, creatine degradation during meat processing, especially heating, has been described by several authors before (Myers and Fine, 1915;Hughes, 1960;Del Campo et al, 1998;Purchas et al, 2004;Larsen et al, 2007).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Creatine and creatinine contents in different diet types for dogs – effects of source and processing

Dobenecker

Braun

2015

Animal Physiology Nutrition

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SummaryThe concentrations of creatine and its degradation product creatinine were determined in a variety of unprocessed as well as processed feedstuffs suitable for dogs. Unprocessed feedstuffs were categorised as single feedstuffs, bone and raw food diets (BARF), and small vertebrates, for example prey animals. Processed feedstuffs were categorised as meat/meat and bone meals, complete wet diets and complete dry diets. The feedstuffs were chosen to cover a broad range of each of the three defined processed and unprocessed feed categories available on the market without further subclustering. The creatine content of the samples was compared on a dry matter, protein and energy basis. The relation of creatine to crude protein permitted a rating of the meat quality in terms of muscle tissue. Results: We found no difference in creatine concentrations between the three categories of unprocessed feedstuffs (raw single feedstuffs, prey and BARF diets), neither on a dry matter basis nor when expressed relative to crude protein and metabolisable energy respectively. Significantly lower levels were determined in meat/meat and bone meal and commercial dry diets (e.g. 303 mg creatine/MJ ME in unprocessed vs. 6 mg/MJ ME in processed feedstuffs; p < 0.001). We conclude that in relation to ME, the exclusive use of conventionally processed diets for dogs, especially dry diets, leads to considerably lower intake of creatine which is a natural compound of the diet of this carnivorous and omnivorous species.

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“…Creatine synthesis occurs within the liver, kidneys and pancreas, and the organism utilizes arginine, methionine and glycine for this purpose (Mora et al, 2010). Creatine is dissolved to creatinine in the presence of water, low pH and elevated temperature (Pischel and Gastner, 2007), which may have practical significance for thermal processing of meat and production of processed products.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Influence of raw pea (Pisum sativum) or blue lupin seeds (Lupinus angustifolius) on the level of selected bioactive substances in pork meat

Sońta

Łukasiewicz

Puppel

et al. 2022

Annals of Animal Science

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The study objective was to evaluate the impact of different contributions of pea (Pisum sativum) cultivar Hubal and blue lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) cultivar Regent on the level of selected bioactive substances in pork meat. 100 individuals three-breed cross piglets: ♀ (landrace × yorkshire) × ♂ duroc were used. Two experiments were performed, in which pea seeds (experiment I: E1 – 5.0% pea seeds; E2 – 10.0% pea seeds; E3 – 15.0% pea seeds; E4 -17.5% pea seeds) and blue lupin seeds (experiment II; D1 – 5.0% blue lupin seeds; D2 – 10.0% blue lupin seeds; D3 – 15.0% blue lupin seeds) were used instead of SBM-GM. In each of the experiments 50 animals were divided into 5 groups (control - C, and four experimental), placed in group pens, each for 10 individuals (sex ratio hogs : sows - 1:1). The animals were weighed and tagged before the experiments. The mean body weight of the pigs at experiment I and II commencement was: 26.7 and 33.5 kg, and at the end of the experiments: 122.0 and 124.0, respectively. In the first experiment (progressive pea contribution) the concentration of Carnosine was shown to be higher in E4 than E3 and C by 47.3% and 94.2%, respectively. In comparison with group C, the Q10 coenzyme content in groups E1, E2, E3 and E4 was lower by 40.9%; 56.8%; 40.9% and 65.9% respectively. In the second experiment (progressive lupin contribution) increased content of all of the investigated bioactive substances was recorded in groups D1-D3 vs C. Significant differences between groups C, D2, D4 for taurine (P≤0.05; P≤0.01) and creatine (P≤0.05) have been recorded. The content of bioactive substances in the longissimus lumborum muscle was significantly influenced by legumes, which increased the level of bioactive components of protein fraction. Therefore, it can be concluded, that pea (Pisum sativum) cultivar Hubal and blue lupine (Lupinus angustifolius) cultivar Regent are an alternative to SBM-GM, increasing the nutritionally valuable of pork meat.

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Creatine – its Chemical Synthesis, Chemistry, and Legal Status

Cited by 20 publications

References 16 publications

The creatine kinase system and pleiotropic effects of creatine

The creatine kinase system and pleiotropic effects of creatine

Creatine and creatinine contents in different diet types for dogs – effects of source and processing

Influence of raw pea (Pisum sativum) or blue lupin seeds (Lupinus angustifolius) on the level of selected bioactive substances in pork meat

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