“…High energy spectroscopy, 536 such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), 189,232,393,537 electron energy loss This journal is © the Owner Societies 2022 spectroscopy (EELS), 286,538 energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS or EDX), 286 and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), 192 are direct methods to analyze element composition of 2D materials using high energy beam radiation (e.g., photon, electron, or ion).…”