Cytokines: Principles and prospects

Abstract

Summary Cytokines participate in the induction and eector phases of all immune and in¯ammatory responses. They are therefore obvious tools and targets for strategies designed to promote, inhibit or redirect these responses. However, the complexity of the cytokine network has hindered the widespread clinical application of many cytokines and it has become clear that a deeper understanding of the normal operation of this system in health and disease is needed for the therapeutic potential of cytokines to be fully realized. This review summarizes some of the principles that are now thought to underlie the diverse functions of the interleukins, interferons, colony-stimulating factors and tumour necrosis factors in immune and in¯ammatory reactions in vivo. Genetic and structural relationships between these cytokines, the regulation of their synthesis, and the structures and functions of their receptors are outlined. Current knowledge of these parameters suggests ways in which multiple positive and negative regulatory mechanisms are integrated to balance cytokine bene®ts and harm under physiological conditions and oers new prospects for rational exploitation of this system.

The impaired intestinal mucosal immune system by valine deficiency for young grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) is associated with decreasing immune status and regulating tight junction proteins transcript abundance in the intestine

“…The expression of cytokines is regulated by intracellular signaling molecule in mammals [64]. Jonge and Ulloa [65] suggested that NF-kB plays a key role in regulating gene expression of inflammatory cytokines in immune cells.…”

Dietary phenylalanine-improved intestinal barrier health in young grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) is associated with increased immune status and regulated gene expression of cytokines, tight junction proteins, antioxidant enzymes and related signalling molecules

“…In mammals, production of cytokine can be modulated by the intracellular signalling molecules [56]. Signaling molecules NF-kB [57] and TOR [58] are critical factors mediating expression of cytokines in animals.…”

Cytokine serum levels in soft tissue sarcoma patients: Correlations with clinico‐pathological features and prognosis

“…It may be noted that most of these cytokines as well as their soluble receptors (among them IL-6, IL-8, M-CSF, VEGF, sIL-2R␣, TNF receptors), are involved in normal and pathological wound healing and repair of tissue damage. 1,15,49 The concept of malignancies as "non-healing wounds," recently revoked, 15,50 implies, based on ample evidences, that several cytokines and growth factors released into the tumor microenvironment during interactions between tumor, stromal and immune cells may promote tumor development through auto-and paracrine enhancement of tumor cell proliferation, inhibition of apoptosis and facilitation of invasion. 15,51 Moreover, recent studies have pointed to the critical role of enhanced expression of some che- mokine receptors on human breast and melanoma tumor cells 16 in the formation and localization of distant metastases.…”