Detection of Liver Dysfunction Using a Wearable Electronic Nose System Based on Semiconductor Metal Oxide Sensors

Abstract

The purpose of this exploratory study was to determine whether liver dysfunction can be generally classified using a wearable electronic nose based on semiconductor metal oxide (MOx) gas sensors, and whether the extent of this dysfunction can be quantified. MOx gas sensors are attractive because of their simplicity, high sensitivity, low cost, and stability. A total of 30 participants were enrolled, 10 of them being healthy controls, 10 with compensated cirrhosis, and 10 with decompensated cirrhosis. We used three sensor modules with a total of nine different MOx layers to detect reducible, easily oxidizable, and highly oxidizable gases. The complex data analysis in the time and non-linear dynamics domains is based on the extraction of 10 features from the sensor time series of the extracted breathing gas measurement cycles. The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy for distinguishing compensated and decompensated cirrhosis patients from healthy controls was 1.00. Patients with compensated and decompensated cirrhosis could be separated with a sensitivity of 0.90 (correctly classified decompensated cirrhosis), a specificity of 1.00 (correctly classified compensated cirrhosis), and an accuracy of 0.95. Our wearable, non-invasive system provides a promising tool to detect liver dysfunctions on a functional basis. Therefore, it could provide valuable support in preoperative examinations or for initial diagnosis by the general practitioner, as it provides non-invasive, rapid, and cost-effective analysis results.

Three‐Terminal Artificial Olfactory Sensors based on Emerging Materials: Mechanism and Application

“…Voss et al fabricated a semiconductor metal oxide-based wearable artificial olfactory sensor to detect liver dysfunction. [201] Three sensor modules were used to detect gases from 30 participants, who were divided into three groups. The results showed that the wearable sensor array could distinguish 100% of liver dysfunctions of different severities from controls.…”

Biosensors: Types, Applications, and Future Advantages

“…Today, it is used in many areas of science and technology. With the production of X-ray detectors, ESEM is making great progress [100]. ESEM is also used for imaging insulating samples without the need for prior sample preparation [98]ESEM has many features.…”

“…STMs have many advantages because they are low-cost and small in size. The disadvantage is that it works at a low speed [100].…”

Semiconductor Multimaterial Optical Fibers for Biomedical Applications

“…Semiconducting gas sensors are employed to test certain gases, such as hydrogen peroxide [ 183 ], acetone [ 184 ], ammonia [ 185 ], nitric oxide [ 186 ], and volatile sulfur [ 187 ], from human bodies. However, the study is being undertaken to create detection systems based on commercial MOX detectors to monitor low quantities of VOCs in breath [ 188 ], which is further enhanced by temperature modulation [ 189 ]. Particular breath biomarkers not only identify the existence of particular illnesses but also represent the overall physical state.…”