“…This rapid expansion of cities, particularly in developing countries, brings with it significant challenges, including environmental degradation, loss of arable land and increased pressure on infrastructure and services (Liu et al, 2021;Zhang et al, 2022;Khan et al, 2021;Sarker et al, 2021). In Saudi Arabia, the rate of urbanisation is emblematic of this global trend, with cities such as Riyadh and Jeddah experiencing rapid growth (Alharbi, 2018). The Kingdom's urban population increased from 86% in 2010 to over 83% in 2020, reflecting a significant urban transformation (AlQadhi et al, 2021;Mallick et al, 2022).…”