Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale

Bernstein, Eve; Putnam, Frank W.

doi:10.1037/e609912012-081

Cited by 1,219 publications

(1,773 citation statements)

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“…As stated earlier, most psychiatric conditions comorbid with nightmares implicate elevated levels of affect distress: borderline personality disorder Claridge, Davis, Bellhouse, & Kaptein, 1998), dissociative symptomatology as measured by the Dissociative Experiences Survey (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986;see Agargun, Kara, Ozer, Selvi, Kiran, & Kiran, 2003;Levin & Fireman, 2002a;Nielsen, 2005;Watson, 2001) and self-reported histories of childhood traumatic events, particularly physical abuse .…”

Section: Nightmares Are Associated With Other Psychiatric Disordersmentioning

confidence: 95%

Disturbed dreaming, posttraumatic stress disorder, and affect distress: A review and neurocognitive model.

Levin

Nielsen

2007

Psychological Bulletin

527

557

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Nightmares are common, occurring weekly in 4%-10% of the population, and are associated with female gender, younger age, increased stress, psychopathology, and dispositional traits. Nightmare pathogenesis remains unexplained, as do differences between nontraumatic and posttraumatic nightmares (for those with or without posttraumatic stress disorder) and relations with waking functioning. No models adequately explain nightmares nor have they been reconciled with recent developments in cognitive neuroscience, fear acquisition, and emotional memory. The authors review the recent literature and propose a conceptual framework for understanding a spectrum of dysphoric dreaming. Central to this is the notion that variations in nightmare prevalence, frequency, severity, and psychopathological comorbidity reflect the influence of both affect load, a consequence of daily variations in emotional pressure, and affect distress, a disposition to experience events with distressing, highly reactive emotions. In a cross-state, multilevel model of dream function and nightmare production, the authors integrate findings on emotional memory structures and the brain correlates of emotion.Keywords: nightmares, distress, neurophysiology of fear memory, posttraumatic stress disorder, psychopathology Nightmares are the most common form of disturbed dreaming. Vivid, with emotions escalating at times to the brink of terror, they are manifestations of the dramatic autonomic and cognitive fluctuations that can arise during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and, under certain circumstances, during Stage 2 sleep. Nightmares can be simple and benign or so emotionally severe that they beg for comparison with psychotic episodes (C. Fisher, Byrne, Edwards, & Kahn, 1970;Hartmann, 1984;Sullivan, 1962). Occasional nightmares are almost ubiquitous in the general population. However, frequent distressing nightmares are more common than generally thought, affecting 4%-10% of individuals by conservative estimates. Nightmares are also extremely common following trauma exposure. Posttraumatic nightmares may depict traumarelated content and, in cases of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), may at times replicate the trauma with great distress (for review, see Mellman & Pigeon, 2005).There has been a proliferation of experimental work on posttraumatic and nontraumatic nightmares in the past 15 years, the vast majority of which has examined the psychopathological correlates of individuals with frequent nightmares. Furthermore, recent advances in neuroscience have greatly expanded our understanding of dreaming and related brain functions (Maquet, 2000;Maquet et al., 2000) as well as the pathogenic mechanisms implicated in fear conditioning and the development of PTSD (LeDoux, 2000;Ohman & Mineka, 2001). However, despite the clear implications of these developments for understanding nightmares, there are still no comprehensive models of nightmare etiology and no conceptual frameworks for understanding the link between posttraumatic and nontraumatic nightm...

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Section: Nightmares Are Associated With Other Psychiatric Disordersmentioning

confidence: 95%

Disturbed dreaming, posttraumatic stress disorder, and affect distress: A review and neurocognitive model.

Levin

Nielsen

2007

Psychological Bulletin

527

557

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“…At the screening interview, the premorbid IQ of each participant was also assessed by the 'Spot the Word' test (Baddeley et al, 1993), an estimate of verbal intelligence based on lexical decision; trait dissociation was assessed by the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES, Bernstein and Putnam, 1986).…”

Section: Participants and Designmentioning

confidence: 99%

Acute Effects of Ketamine on Memory Systems and Psychotic Symptoms in Healthy Volunteers

Morgan

Mofeez

Brandner

et al. 2003

Neuropsychopharmacol

244

174

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N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists have been demonstrated to induce schizophrenia-like symptoms and cognitive impairment in humans. The NMDA receptor has been strongly implicated in memory, but research to date on the effects of NMDA antagonists has examined only some aspects of human memory functions. This study used a double-blind, placebo-controlled, independent groups design with 54 healthy volunteers to examine the effects of infusions of two doses (0.4, 0.8 mg/kg) of the NMDA antagonist ketamine upon the five human memory systems, aspects of executive functioning and schizophrenia-like and dissociative symptoms. Ketamine produced a dose-dependent impairment to episodic and working memory and a slowing of semantic processing. Ketamine also impaired recognition memory and procedural learning. Attention, perceptual priming and executive functioning were not affected following the drug. In addition, ketamine induced schizophrenia-like and dissociative symptoms, which were not correlated with the cognitive measures. These data suggest that, in humans, ketamine produces a selective pattern of impairments to working, episodic, and procedural memory but not to perceptual priming, attention or aspects of executive functioning.

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“…For each item of the ETI, frequency of trauma, perpetrator of the trauma by developmental stage, onset and termination of trauma, and impact on the individual are assessed. Dissociative traits were assessed with the Dissociative Experience Scale (DES; Bernstein and Putnam, 1986). Axis I diagnoses were assessed by a trained psychiatrist (C.G.S) and psychologist (B.M.E.)…”

Section: Assessmentmentioning

confidence: 99%

Psychophysiological reactivity to traumatic and abandonment scripts in borderline personality and posttraumatic stress disorders: a preliminary report

Schmahl

Elzinga

Ebner

et al. 2004

Psychiatry Research

108

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Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a highly prevalent and disabling condition linked to early stressors including traumatic abuse and abandonment. While much work has addressed traumatic events in childhood, little is known about the biological sequelae of BPD including how this disorder may be differentiated from other stressrelated disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The purpose of this study was to investigate psychophysiological effects of different types of stressful reminders in BPD and in PTSD. Psychophysiological measures including heart rate, skin conductance responses, systolic and diastolic blood pressure in response to standardized neutral scripts, and personalized scripts of traumatic and abandonment situations were compared among subjects with BPD, PTSD and controls, all with a reported history of sexual andyor physical abuse before age 18. Significant script by diagnosis interactions are found for skin conductance and systolic blood pressure. No significant effects were found for diastolic blood pressure or heart rate. In the PTSD group the greatest systolic blood pressure responses were to traumatic scripts, whereas patients with BPD showed a tendency towards greater skin conductance responses to abandonment scripts. Our findings reveal only partially different psychophysiological responses to traumatic and abandonment scripts in PTSD and BPD. A divergence in pathophysiology in these two disorders is suggested that may be linked to childhood trauma. However, this interpretation must be tested in a larger population.

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Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale

Cited by 1,219 publications

References 0 publications

Disturbed dreaming, posttraumatic stress disorder, and affect distress: A review and neurocognitive model.

Disturbed dreaming, posttraumatic stress disorder, and affect distress: A review and neurocognitive model.

Acute Effects of Ketamine on Memory Systems and Psychotic Symptoms in Healthy Volunteers

Psychophysiological reactivity to traumatic and abandonment scripts in borderline personality and posttraumatic stress disorders: a preliminary report

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