Dynamic Characteristics of Foot Development: A Narrative Synthesis of Plantar Pressure Data During Infancy and Childhood

Abstract

Purpose: Quantifying plantar pressure throughout childhood enables clinicians to enhance knowledge of typical changes in foot function. This narrative review aims to describe existing research reporting plantar pressure analysis in infants and children developing typically, to advance understanding of foot development. Methods: A narrative approach was used; 263 articles were identified and 13 met inclusion criteria. Results: Plantar pressures during walking rapidly change in infancy and childhood. With development, pressures increasingly resemble those in adults with the development of initial heel contact, shift in pressure distribution from medial to lateral foot side, decreasing midfoot pressure magnitude. The literature has a variety of study designs, data collection protocols, and analysis. Conclusion: This review describes plantar pressure changes occurring as walking develops, emphasizing the typical trajectory of foot function development in infancy and childhood. The present finding describes the complex biomechanical development of foot function in typically developing infancy and childhood.

Foot plantar pressure and centre of pressure trajectory differ between straight and turning steps in infants

“…The relevance of the forefoot push-off to generating forces is yet to be defined in this infant population due to less potential power generation at the foot/ankle 35 . The forefoot has an important role in infancy when walking in a straight line in early stance, particularly in new walkers, as it offers a large contact area for initial foot contact with the ground 5 , 36 . It is likely that this role is maintained in turning steps.…”

“…Loading on the infant foot has been characterised using contact area, peak plantar pressures and force time integrals for anatomical regions of interest e.g. the forefoot 5 and at various phases of gait development 6 – 9 . However, importantly, this has only ever involved infants walking under direction and in a straight line.…”

Longitudinal study of foot pressures during real-world walking as infants develop from new to confident walkers

“…After one year of independent walking, initial contact regularly occurred with the heel (4,12). Typical patterns of walking also see a reduction in relative midfoot contact area (2.7-3.6 %) and a reduction in associated normalised forces (4.1-5.5 %) (14).…”

Overweight and Obesity: Its Impact on Foot Type, Flexibility, Foot Strength, Plantar Pressure and Stability in Children from 5 to 10 Years of Age: Descriptive Observational Study

“…Considering previous literature, some studies have already highlighted how children who have OW and OB are more likely to suffer from several clinical comorbidities such as diabetes or metabolic syndrome [ 6 ], while others have already remarked how there is an association between increased risk of injury and childhood OB and gait, plantar pressures and stability [ 7 , 8 , 9 ], these being the main factors related to pain in the feet and lower limbs in children [ 10 ]. Notwithstanding, there is still controversy about the level of association between OW and OB and gait disturbance in children.…”