Empathy Modulates the Effect of Stress Reactivity on Generous Giving

Abstract

How does acute stress influence the degree to which we cooperate with others? Research on the effects of stress on social decision-making is guided by two seemingly contrasting theories. Acute stress may trigger a Fight-or-Flight response, manifested by increased anxiety, and more egocentric or selfish behavior. Alternatively, according to the Tend-and-Befriend model, acute stress may induce affiliative behaviors, marked by increased prosociality in an effort to seek and receive social support and protection. Extant studies on the topic do not provide consistent support for either pattern of behavior, with studies showing evidence for both Fight-or-Flight or Tend-and-Befriend like responses. One possibility, may be the nature of social responses to stressful situations differ as a function of the individual. In the current study, we demonstrate an example of such a person-by-situation interaction, showing that acute stress can cause either pro-social or selfish responses, contingent on individual differences in trait empathy. One hundred and twenty three participants (60 F) were assessed for trait empathy using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index; consequently, they underwent either the Trier Social Stress Test—a well-validated paradigm for eliciting acute psychosocial stress—or a non-stress inducing control condition. Following exposure to either the stress or control condition, participants played a one-shot Dictator Game to evaluate their generosity levels. Statistical analyses revealed that acute stress by itself did not affect the amount transferred in the Dictator Game. Rather, individual differences in trait empathy moderated the effects of stress on giving. Elevations in stress-induced cortisol resulted in more generous behavior, but only in individuals high in empathy. In contrast, in individuals low in empathy, a greater rise in stress-induced cortisol resulted in more selfish behavior. Effects were more pronounced in females than males. Our findings highlight the necessity of integrating personality traits as important moderators of the link between stress and sociality.

Acute stress reduces effortful prosocial behaviour

“…Our study extends previous findings demonstrating the importance of individual differences in empathy (31), mentalising (33), and Social Value Orientation (34) in predicting prosocial responses under acute stress. However, it is not yet clear when acute stress accentuates or supresses existing prosocial tendencies.…”

“…However, it is not yet clear when acute stress accentuates or supresses existing prosocial tendencies. For example, Schulreich et al (2022) found that increases in cortisol were associated with reductions in donations in participants scoring high on mentalising, whereas Azulay et al (2022) found that that increases in cortisol predicted enhanced donations in participants with high trait empathy (see also 32). Given the heterogeneity in behaviour in economic games under stress (7), future studies may benefit from manipulating the effort involved in helping, or other non-financial costs, to help us understand how the social behaviour of different individuals is affected by acute stress.…”

“…The willingness to engage in prosocial behaviour shows substantial individual differences (29,30) and may account for previous inconsistencies in terms of how acute stress affects social behaviour (7). For example, Azulay et al (31) showed that elevations in cortisol following stress induction resulted in greater generosity in a one-shot Dictator Game in participants scoring high on trait empathy, with such cortisol increases resulting in reduced generosity in those scoring low on empathy.…”

The acute effects of stress on dishonesty are moderated by individual differences in moral default

“…In line with this reasoning, a recent study by Forbes and colleagues 29 found that individuals with a more selfish social value orientation exhibit even more selfish behavior under acute stress, whereas this was not observed for individuals with a more prosocial value orientation. Moreover, Azulay and colleagues 30 reported that individuals with high trait empathy became more prosocial after acute stress, whereas individuals with low trait empathy became more selfish. In concert, these findings suggest that heterogeneity in prosociality, as represented by differences in trait empathy levels and social value orientation, moderate the effect of acute stress on prosocial decisions (but see 31 .…”

Does Stress Make Us More—or Less—Prosocial? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Acute Stress on Prosocial Behaviours Using Economic Games.

“…That we do not find reliable evidence of differential effects due to delay in our moderator analysis might indicate that the glucocorticoid response does not play a crucial role in the effects of acute stress on social decision making (in either direction), or that other factors might moderate this association (cf. Azulay et al, 2022;Schulreich et al, 2022;Schweda et al, 2019;Zhang et al, 2019). This is further corroborated by the findings that the type of stressor did not influence prosociality (at least not in the experimental designs included in current meta-analysis).…”