Energy Storage Technologies for Modern Power Systems: A Detailed Analysis of Functionalities, Potentials, and Impacts

Abstract

Power systems are undergoing a significant transformation around the globe. Renewable energy sources (RES) are replacing their conventional counterparts, leading to a variable, unpredictable, and distributed energy supply mix. The predominant forms of RES, wind, and solar photovoltaic (PV) require inverter-based resources (IBRs) that lack inherent synchronous inertia desired for the grid and thereby warrant additional interventions for maintaining grid stability by organizing various contingency planning. Such scenarios become more pertinent in the wake of rapid decarbonization objectives adopted by different countries, stringent grid code compliance, and improved grid resilience milestones. Energy storage technologies can potentially address these concerns viably at different levels. This paper reviews different forms of storage technology available for grid application and classifies them on a series of merits relevant to a particular category. The varied maturity level of these solutions is discussed, depending on their adaptability and their notion towards pragmatic implementations. Some specific technologies that require particular mention are -hydrogen (H 2 ) storage with fuel cells (FC) as the reconversion medium, molten metal, and gravity batteries due to their highly scalable and siteable characteristics participating in load shifting; batteries and H 2 FC due to their high flexibility for peak shaving; and flywheels and supercapacitors for quick response applications, such as frequency regulation and voltage support. Various performance metrics are critically evaluated by comparing them on their usability scale, thus helping readers make a subjective judgment on a particular technology while being aware of the forthcoming limitations. Finally, the paper delves into some emerging trends that decide the selection of a particular technology based on life cycle assessment, economic viability, and commercial and environmental considerations that are presented under the given circumstances. The paper is believed to offer a broad overview of possible directions for the electric grid business, eventually emphasizing the need for more hybrid solutions with opportunities for short and long-term storage options.INDEX TERMS Energy storage, compressed air, hydrogen fuel cells, frequency regulation, gravity battery, molten metal, li-ion, peak shaving, power systems, pumped hydro, renewable energy, sustainability, voltage support. I. INTRODUCTIONElectricity plays a central theme in all walks of life in modern society. Because of its importance, issues related to the availability and cost of energy for electricity and its environmentalThe associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and approving it for publication was Vitor Monteiro . impact are never far from the daily news. Currently, most energy worldwide is generated from fossil-based sources. The increasing trend in energy production and consumption, as well as visible negative impacts thereof, in the form of air quality, health, and environment ha...

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“…FESS can be divided into two primary categories. Low-speed fywheels are those that spin at fewer than 10,000 revolutions per minute and are more common in industries [170,171]. Te low-speed FESS has a steel disk with a high moment of inertia [172].…”

“…Tey fnd extensive use in portable devices, electric vehicles, and grid storage. Lead-acid batteries, typically employed in low-to-medium power scenarios (from a few watts to hundreds of kilowatts), cater for short to medium discharges, lasting minutes to a few hours [170]. Tey serve automotive starting batteries, backup power systems, and of-grid solar energy storage.…”

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