Engineering Therapeutics to Detoxify Hemoglobin, Heme, and Iron

Abstract

Hemolysis (i.e., red blood cell lysis) can increase circulatory levels of cell-free hemoglobin (Hb) and its degradation by-products, namely heme (h) and iron (Fe). Under homeostasis, minor increases in these three hemolytic by-products (Hb/h/Fe) are rapidly scavenged and cleared by natural plasma proteins. Under certain pathophysiological conditions, scavenging systems become overwhelmed, leading to the accumulation of Hb/h/Fe in the circulation. Unfortunately, these species cause various side effects such as vasoconstriction, hypertension, and oxidative organ damage. Therefore, various therapeutics strategies are in development, ranging from supplementation with depleted plasma scavenger proteins to engineered biomimetic protein constructs capable of scavenging multiple hemolytic species. In this review, we briefly describe hemolysis and the characteristics of the major plasma-derived protein scavengers of Hb/h/Fe. Finally, we present novel engineering approaches designed to address the toxicity of these hemolytic by-products.

The Influence of Magnetic Fields, Including the Planetary Magnetic Field, on Complex Life Forms: How Do Biological Systems Function in This Field and in Electromagnetic Fields?

“…The regulation of these iron ion-containing molecules is tightly controlled as their dysregulation may be harmful to human health [12,[25][26][27][28][29][30], as heme also appears to have toxic properties [31]. Further evidence for the tight regulation of iron ions during pregnancy [32], exercise [33], and hypoxia [34] indicate that this ion is very important biologically.…”

The Influence of Magnetic Fields including the Geomagnetic Field of Earth on Complex Life Forms: A Silent “Partner” in Human Health and Disease?

“…The regulation of these Fe-containing molecules is tightly controlled as their dysregulation may be harmful to human health [12,[25][26][27][28][29][30] as heme appears to have toxic properties [31]. Further evidence for the tight regulation of iron during pregnancy [32], exercise [33], and hypoxia [34] indicate that this ion is very important biologically.…”