Environmental Sampling for Influenza A Viruses in Turkey Barns

A literature review of the use of environmental sampling in the surveillance of avian influenza viruses

“…Within the LBMs or poultry farms, multiple types of ES were collected from cages (Biswas et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2014; Horm et al., 2016; Indriani et al., 2010; Lopez et al., 2018; Yuan et al., 2015), floors (Biswas et al., 2018; Bulaga et al, 2003; Chen et al., 2014; Indriani et al., 2010), poultry drinking water sources (Chen et al., 2014; Horm et al., 2016; Indriani et al., 2010; Munoz‐Aguayo et al., 2019; Yuan et al., 2015), feeding sources (Indriani et al., 2010; Lopez et al., 2018; Munoz‐Aguayo et al., 2019), processing (Chen et al., 2014; Indriani et al., 2010; Lopez et al., 2018; Yuan et al., 2015), slaughtering and display surfaces (Biswas et al., 2018; Bulaga et al, 2003; Chen et al., 2014; Indriani et al., 2010; Yuan et al., 2015), carcass wash water (Biswas et al., 2018; Horm et al., 2016; Yuan et al., 2015), equipment, waste bins, water run‐off and cleaning materials (Chen et al., 2014; Indriani et al., 2010). Several studies also described the collection of air samples (Bui et al., 2019; Kang, Chen, Bi, Chen, & Tan, 2016; Scoizec et al., 2018; Wei et al., 2018; Wu, Ke, et al, 2019; Wu, Lau, et al, 2019; Wu et al., 2018; Zeng et al., 2017; Zhou et al, 2016).…”

“…Multiple advantages of ES have been put forward. ES was considered a cost‐effective (Deliberto et al., 2009; Perez‐Ramirez et al., 2010; Stallknecht et al., 2012), simple, rapid, flexible, convenient and acceptable way of achieving surveillance objectives (Indriani et al., 2010; Leung et al., 2007; McLean et al., 2007; Munoz‐Aguayo et al., 2019; Onuma et al., 2017; Pannwitz, Wolf, & Harder, 2009). As a non‐invasive technique, it was posited by authors to improve animal welfare (Bui et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2010) and to reduce impact on wild bird habitats and communities (Barbara et al., 2017; Pannwitz et al., 2009; Perez‐Ramirez et al., 2010).…”

“…For certain AI viruses (e.g. H9N2 in LBMs), higher rates of detection have been found in drinking water samples compared to LBS cloacal and/or oropharyngeal (Kale, Mishra, & Pawar, 2013; Munoz‐Aguayo et al., 2019) or faecal samples (Leung et al., 2007). However, observations in markets demonstrate that water supply to birds varies considerably from market to market, potentially impacting virus prevalence in water samples.…”

“…Techniques for the demonstration of viable virus through embryonated egg inoculation in certain ES (e.g. fresh faecal samples) are well‐established, and many studies have successfully isolated virus from a range of ES (Barbara et al., 2017; Bui et al., 2019; Dong et al., 2017; Fujimoto et al., 2010; Ge, Yao, et al, 2017; Ghersi et al., 2009; Guan et al., 1999; Hiono et al., 2015; Jahangir et al., 2009; Kang et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2010; Li et al., 2019; Munoz‐Aguayo et al., 2019; Negovetich et al., 2011; Onuma et al., 2017; Qi et al., 2018; Trock et al., 2008; Yuan et al., 2015). However, isolation rates have been variable and in some cases very low (Haynes et al., 2009; Horm, Gutierrez, Nicholls, & Buchy, 2012; Onuma et al., 2017), and sometimes unsuccessful (Kelvin et al., 2012; Vong et al., 2008).…”

“…The sampling methods for poultry processing factories, poultry farms and backyard poultry pens were less frequently described in detail; however, multiple types of ES were collected including feathers, surface swabs of cages, barn floors and walls, feed troughs, egg belts and processing locations, areas with faecal contamination, pond water, mud and air samples (Horm et al., 2016; Munoz‐Aguayo et al., 2019; Vong et al., 2008). As a general rule, sampling of birds, especially sick or dead birds, is the sample of choice for HPAIV on farms.…”