Epidemiology, host range, and associated risk factors of monkeypox: an emerging global public health threat

Abstract

Based on recent multiregional epidemiological investigations of Monkeypox (MPX), on 24 July 2022, the World Health Organization declared it a global public health threat. Retrospectively MPX was an ignored zoonotic endemic infection to tropical rainforest regions of Western and Central African rural communities until a worldwide epidemic in May 2022 verified the potential threat of monkeypox virus (MPXV) to be propagated across the contemporary world via transnational tourism and animal movements. During 2018–2022, different cases of MPX diagnosed in Nigerian travelers have been documented in Israel, the United Kingdom, Singapore, and the United States. More recently, on 27 September 2022, 66,000 MPX cases have been confirmed in more than 100 non-endemic countries, with fluctuating epidemiological footprinting from retrospective epidemics. Particular disease-associated risk factors fluctuate among different epidemics. The unpredicted appearance of MPX in non-endemic regions suggests some invisible transmission dynamic. Hence, broad-minded and vigilant epidemiological attention to the current MPX epidemic is mandatory. Therefore, this review was compiled to highlight the epidemiological dynamic, global host ranges, and associated risk factors of MPX, concentrating on its epidemic potential and global public health threat.

Genomic analyses of Symbiomonas scintillans show no evidence for endosymbiotic bacteria but does reveal the presence of giant viruses

“…Additionally, the name “prasinoviruses” likely reflects a sampling bias in the first reports, as is the case for many viruses. Notably, both Monkeypox (MPXV) [ 71 ] and Cucumber mosaic viruses (CMV) [ 72 ] were named after their first isolation from Macaca fascicularis (macaque monkeys) and Cucumis sativus (cucumbers), respectively, but MPXV was subsequently reported to infect other hosts including humans and squirrels (for MPXV) (reviewed in [ 73 ]), and CMV in legumes and ornamental plants [ 74 ].…”

Monkeypox Virus: A Comprehensive Overview of Viral Pathology, Immune Response, and Antiviral Strategies

“…Therefore, the mpox outbreak is no longer considered a public health emergency of international concern [ 19 ]. Thus, by following the temporary recommendations for the transitionary period, the long-term control of mpox could be adopted to overcome the expected healthcare burden linked with mpox [ 17 , 20 ].…”

Mpox virus: a growing threat to fragile healthcare systems in Pakistan

“…The enveloped double-stranded DNA virus known as mpox, formerly referred to as monkeypox, belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus and has garnered heightened attention due to recent outbreaks beyond Africa, underscoring its potential as a worldwide health concern 1 . Globally, 88 549 confirmed cases of mpox, including 152 fatalities, have been recorded across 111 countries as of 19 July 2023, yielding a case fatality ratio (CFR) of ~0.172%.…”

“…Significantly, recent infections have exhibited heightened infectivity, potentially attributed to genetic modifications. This escalated infectivity might expedite broader transmission, mandating thorough surveillance and expedient response strategies 1 .…”

“…The disease presentation initiates with an initial prodromal phase typified by fever, cephalalgia, myalgia, and lymphadenopathy, succeeded by the emergence of multiple pseudo-papular 10 , ulcerative, and vesiculopustular cutaneous lesions, which evolve from macules to papules, vesicles, pustules, crusts, and culminate in scab formation 6 . The majority of individuals afflicted with mpox undergo a self-limited disease trajectory, and symptoms typically abate within a span of 2–4 weeks 1 . Fatality rates attributed to mpox infection exhibit variability, ranging from 1 to 10% 6 .…”