Evaluation and Current State of Primary and Secondary Zinc Production—A Review

Abstract

This article presents the history of zinc, its production and demand. The quantity of zinc production, both primary zinc from ores and concentrates, and secondary zinc from scrap and zinc-rich waste, was discussed. A comprehensive economic analysis covers zinc prices in the years 1960–2021. The basic methods of obtaining zinc from ores, including pyrometallurgical (Imperial Smelting Process ISP, Kivcet, Ausmelt) and hydrometallurgical (roasting–leaching–electrowinning RLE, atmospheric direct leaching ADL, Engitec Zinc Extraction EZINEX, zinc pressure leach) and their short characteristics, are presented. The global zinc market and the main areas of its application were analyzed. Technologies used for the recovery of zinc from scrap are discussed along with their characteristics. Galvanized steel is the main source of secondary zinc, both in the galvanizing process and in the remelting of galvanized steel. It can be easily recycled with other scrap steel in the electric arc furnace (EAF) for steel production. Currently, with high volatility in the price of zinc, as well as its natural resources in the earth’s crust, recycling is an important activity, despite the fact that zinc concentrates have a relatively constant chemical composition, while the resulting zinc waste contains zinc in varying amounts.

Microstructure and Corrosion Behavior of ZnAl12Mg3Si0.3 Double-Batch Hot-Dip Coatings

“…The HDG process currently consumes more than 50% of the world’s zinc production, with zinc production steadily increasing. At the same time, natural resources of zinc are estimated at a level that allows to meet the growing demand in about 17 years [ 4 ]. It is therefore necessary to limit the consumption of zinc.…”

Phase Equilibrium Studies of Nonferrous Smelting Slags: A Review

“…Mukhopadhyay et al [21] studied the phase relations in CaFeSiO 4 -Fe 2 SiO 4 and found a miscibility gap below approximately 1041 • C. the sinter plant-blast furnace process due to its high thermal efficiency, less feed preparation, and efficient SO2 utilization [16]. Although oxygen pressure leaching has been developed for producing zinc in recent years, pyrometallurgy is still utilized to extract zinc from lead and zinc mixed concentrate [17].…”

Development and application of matte/speiss/metal thermodynamic database for optimization of processing of drosses, dusts and reverts from lead, zinc and copper production

“…In Europe, Australia, and the USA, the perception of production sites as "polluting" has led to public pressure on both industries and governments. Production in these countries stagnated, and no major investment in metallurgical infrastructure was observed in 2010-2020 [1,2]. In 2022, energy crisis in Europe lead to several shutdowns.…”