Evidence on the links between water insecurity, inadequate sanitation and mental health: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract

Background Water insecurity and inadequate sanitation have adverse impacts on the mental health of individuals. Objective To review and synthesize evidence on the relationship between water insecurity, inadequate sanitation, and mental health globally. Data sources Relevant studies were identified by searching PubMed, PsycINFO, and EMBASE databases from inception up to March 2023. Study eligibility criteria Only quantitative studies were included. The exposure was water insecurity and or inadequate sanitation. The outcome was common mental disorders (CMD: depression or anxiety), mental distress, mental health or well-being. There was no restriction on geographical location. Participants General population or people attending health facilities or other services. Exposure Water insecurity and/ or inadequate sanitation. Risk of bias The effective Public Health Practice Project (EPHPP) assessment tool was used to assess quality of selected studies. Synthesis of results A meta-analysis was conducted using a random effects statistical model. Results Twenty-five studies were included, with 23,103 participants from 16 countries in three continents: Africa (Kenya, Ethiopia, Ghana, Uganda, South Africa, Malawi, Mozambique, and Lesotho), Asia (Nepal, Bangladesh, India, and Iran) and the Americas (Brazil, Haiti, Bolivia and Vietnam). There was a statistically significant association between water insecurity and CMD symptoms. Nine studies reported a continuous outcome (5,248 participants): overall standardized mean difference (SMD = 1.38; 95% CI = 0.88, 1.87). Five studies reported a binary outcome (5,776 participants): odds ratio 5.03; 95% CI = 2.26, 11.18. There was a statistically significant association between inadequate sanitation and CMD symptoms (7415 participants), overall SMD = 5.36; 95% CI = 2.51, 8.20. Limitations Most of the included studies were cross-sectional which were unable to examine temporal relationships. Conclusions Water insecurity and inadequate sanitation contribute to poorer mental health globally. Implications of key findings Interventions to provide basic water, sanitation and psychosocial support, could substantially contribute to reducing the burden of CMD alongside other health and social benefits. Trial registration PROSPERO registration number: CRD42022322528.

Household Water Insecurity Experiences (Hwise) Scale: The Protocol of Cultural Adaptation and Statistical Validation

“…They may also experience feelings of embarrassment and social shame. These hindrances and negative experiences may potentially lead to elevated levels of frustration, anxiety, and depression in individuals (Kimutai et al, 2023). In extreme situations, water insufficiency may elicit rumination and suicidal ideation (Kangmennaang & Elliott, 2021).…”

“…This may be underpinned by the culturally constructed gender roles that dictate women in the household to engage more in negotiating access to safe water. As a result, it may expose women to harsh weather conditions, quarrels, and accidents, and may also subject them to an increased risk of assault and rape en route to the water source (Kimutai et al, 2023).…”

Effectiveness of combining prevention psychological interventions with interventions that address the social determinants of mental health in low and middle-income countries: protocol of a systematic review and meta-analysis

“…In LMICs, a range of factors such as poverty, conflict exposure, malnutrition, gender-based violence and social inequalities influence the prevalence, incidence and prevention strategies of CMHCs. [6][7][8][9][10] Described as social determinants of mental health, these factors are the social and economic conditions that may have a direct influence on the prevalence and severity of mental disorders across the life course. [11][12][13] Evidence suggests that CMHCs are strongly socially determined among populations worldwide.…”