Evolution and diversification of the Toxicofera reptile venom system

Fry, Bryan G.; Vidal, Nicolás; Weerd, Louise van der; Kochva, Elazar; Renjifo, Camila

doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2009.01.009

Cited by 114 publications

(139 citation statements)

References 74 publications

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“…One of the most fascinating techniques of capturing prey or defending oneself is the use of poisons or venoms. Venom represents an adaptive trait and an example of convergent evolution [1][2][3]. Venoms are deadly cocktails, each comprising unique mixtures of peptides and proteins naturally tailored by Natural Selection to act on vital systems of the prey or victim.…”

Section: The Ying and Yang Of Animal Venomsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Venoms, venomics, antivenomics

et al. 2009

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a b s t r a c tVenoms comprise mixtures of peptides and proteins tailored by Natural Selection to act on vital systems of the prey or victim. Here we review our proteomic protocols for uncoiling the composition, immunological profile, and evolution of snake venoms. Our long-term goal is to gain a deep insight of all viperid venom proteomes. Knowledge of the inter-and intraspecies ontogenetic, individual, and geographic venom variability has applied importance for the design of immunization protocols aimed at producing more effective polyspecific antivenoms. A practical consequence of assessing the cross-reactivity of heterologous antivenoms is the possibility of circumventing the restricted availability of species-specific antivenoms in some regions. Further, the high degree of target specificity makes toxins valuable scaffolds for drug development.

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Section: The Ying and Yang Of Animal Venomsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Venoms, venomics, antivenomics

et al. 2009

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“…The different ecologies of N. vectensis and A. viridis are also reflected by their different neurotoxin content, with a much greater arsenal in Anemonia [14,18]. Previous studies have already shown that diet and ecology probably affected the evolution of the venom arsenal and delivery devices in reptiles [43,44]. Since the complex venom production and delivery mechanisms require considerable energetic resources, but are crucial for survival, ecological shifts might have imposed a strong selective pressure on these systems to either evolve or atrophy.…”

Section: (C) Further Verification Of Toxin Localization To Gland Cellsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Neurotoxin localization to ectodermal gland cells uncovers an alternative mechanism of venom delivery in sea anemones

et al. 2011

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Jellyfish, hydras, corals and sea anemones (phylum Cnidaria) are known for their venomous stinging cells, nematocytes, used for prey and defence. Here we show, however, that the potent Type I neurotoxin of the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, Nv1, is confined to ectodermal gland cells rather than nematocytes. We demonstrate massive Nv1 secretion upon encounter with a crustacean prey. Concomitant discharge of nematocysts probably pierces the prey, expediting toxin penetration. Toxin efficiency in sea water is further demonstrated by the rapid paralysis of fish or crustacean larvae upon application of recombinant Nv1 into their medium. Analysis of other anemone species reveals that in Anthopleura elegantissima, Type I neurotoxins also appear in gland cells, whereas in the common species Anemonia viridis, Type I toxins are localized to both nematocytes and ectodermal gland cells. The nematocyte-based and gland cell-based envenomation mechanisms may reflect substantial differences in the ecology and feeding habits of sea anemone species. Overall, the immunolocalization of neurotoxins to gland cells changes the common view in the literature that sea anemone neurotoxins are produced and delivered only by stinging nematocytes, and raises the possibility that this toxin-secretion mechanism is an ancestral evolutionary state of the venom delivery machinery in sea anemones.

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“…This is further corroborated by the absence of novel helokinestatin domains within the natriuretic precursor gene of varanid lizards (Fry et al 2006(Fry et al , 2009b and the differential rate of evolution between the scaffold of natriuretic peptides and helokinestatins in Abronia graminea (Koludarov et al, 2012).…”

Section: Evolutionmentioning

confidence: 93%

“…Initially phospholipases A2 type III were thought to be present only in the venom of helodermatid lizards Sosa et al, 1986), however subsequent studies revealed their presence in a broader spectrum of anguimorph lizards' oral secretion (Fry et al, 2006;Fry et al, 2009b;Fry et al, 2010b;Koludarov et al, 2012), thus suggesting its plesiotypic role in Anguimorpha clade.…”

Section: Phospholipase A2 Type IIImentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Morphological as well as molecular evolutionary studies suggested that these glands are homologous not only to Heloderma venom glands, but also to the venom glands of frontfanged snakes (Vidal and Hedges, 2005;Fry et al, 2006Fry et al, , 2009bFry et al, ,c 2010a. At the same time it was shown that within the Anguimorpha complex oral glands are relatively…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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An investigation of the evolution of the anguimorph lizard venom system

Koludarov¹

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Over the course of the last two decades significant advances were made in our understanding of the evolution of venom in squamate reptiles. Several studies looked at nuclear genes from various lizards and snakes and confirmed the hypothesis put forth in E. Kochva's article "Phylogeny of the oral glands in reptiles as related to the origin and evolution of snakes" -that anguimorph lizards form part of a monophyletic clade with all the snakes. This confirmation confounded decades of morphology based taxonomy, as did evidence of the inclusion of the Iguania lizard lineage into that group. The new group received the name Toxicofera, emphasizing the role of oral toxins in the evolution of the lineage. Despite being supported by genetic, anatomical and proteomic data, the Toxicofera hypothesis remains controversial. This strengthens the necessity for thorough investigation of toxicoferan reptile venom evolution. The oral secretions of anguimorph lizards demand particular attention not only because they are understudied, but also for the reason that Anguimorpha contains species with the considerable morphological diversity of venom glands -from incipient to advanced and almost snake-like.Therefore the primary goal of this thesis is to address the lack of knowledge on anguimorph lizard oral secretions, in particular that of varanoid lizards which include various monitor species (genus Varanus) as well as Heloderma (gila monster) and Lanthanotus (Borneo earless monitor). This has been achieved through the implementation of several proteomic techniques (in particular, gel electrophoresis) as well as transcriptomic analysis and bioactivity testings.Chapter One reviews all previously published information on anguimorph venom evolution, highlighting the data in support of the Toxicofera hypothesis. Chapter Two presents new data on Heloderma lizard venoms and the striking similarities between the venom profiles of specimens from different localities as well as between species. The data presented and discussed in Chapter Three represents the core finding of this study: the surprising complexity and diversity of varanid lizard oral secretions.Taken together, this study present a compelling argument in favour of functional diversity and differential complexity of the venom of anguimorph lizards and discusses the evolutionary forces that helped generate this diversity.

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Evolution and diversification of the Toxicofera reptile venom system

Cited by 114 publications

References 74 publications

Venoms, venomics, antivenomics

Venoms, venomics, antivenomics

Neurotoxin localization to ectodermal gland cells uncovers an alternative mechanism of venom delivery in sea anemones

An investigation of the evolution of the anguimorph lizard venom system

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