Extracellular Vesicles From Sporothrix brasiliensis Yeast Cells Increases Fungicidal Activity in Macrophages

The emerging role of extracellular vesicles in fungi: a double-edged sword

“…EVs isolated from Sporothrix brasiliensis stimulated the production of IL-12 and IL-6 by macrophages and increased the phagocytic index and fungal load in DCs (dendritic cells). They also increased the levels of immunogenic components and proteins in EVs, which, according to proteomics data, could be related to their virulence ( Ikeda et al, 2018 ; Campos et al, 2021 ). Aspergillus fumigatus EVs mediated the β-glucan-stimulated IL-1α secretion by neutrophils ( Ratitong et al, 2021 ).…”

“…Specifically, it induced the mobilization of activated T lymphocytes and natural killer T cells to the infected lungs, improved the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and histopathological features, and reduced the fungal load ( Baltazar et al, 2021 ). Sporothrix brasiliensis EVs co-cultured with macrophages could enhance the fungicidal activity (assessed through the phagocytic index) of the macrophages ( Campos et al, 2021 ). Aspergillus EVs enhanced phagocytosis and macrophage cytotoxicity, triggering the release of a unique set of antifungal EVs (afEVs) by polymorphonuclear granulocytes (PMNs).…”

“…Moreover, the levels of IL-12 and IL-6 levels were dose-dependently increased during infection. Molecules that are important in the immune response, such as MHC class II and immunoglobulin CD86, were overexpressed in Sporothrix brasiliensis -infected mice ( Campos et al, 2021 ). These molecules showed that EVs could play a protective role during infection with Sporothrix brasiliensis .…”

Fungi extracellular vesicles: extraction, cargo, and the immune system response

“…Macrophages are another cell that plays a vital role in controlling fungi infection (Heung, 2020). Fungi EVs were able to modulate these cells, increasing the fungicidal capacity and/or production of inflammatory mediators as observed in A. flavus (Brauer et al, 2020), A. fumigatus (Souza et al, 2019;Freitas et al 2023), C. albicans , C. neoformans (Oliveira et al, 2010), P. brasiliensis (da Silva et al, 2016), S. brasiliensis (Campos et al, 2021) and Trichophyton interdigitale (Bitencourt et al, 2018). Otherwise, in H. capsulatum (Baltazar et al, 2018) and one strain of C. auris , EVs reduced the fungicidal rate of macrophages, revealing different effects of EVs on host cells.…”

“…In mycology, we have works demonstrating the ability of fungal EVs to interact with the host immune system (Table 1), as seen in A. flavus (Brauer et al, 2020), A. fumigatus (Souza et al, 2019;Freitas et al, 2023), C. albicans (Vargas et al, 2015;Wolf et al, 2015;Vargas et al, 2021;Honorato et al, 2022;Wei et al, 2023), C. auris , C. haemulonii var. vulnera , C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis, C. tropicalis (Kulig et al, 2022), C. deuterogatti (Castelli et al, 2022); C. gatti (Bielska et al, 2018), C. neoformans (Oliveira et al, 2010, Huang et al, 2012Colombo et al, 2019;Marina et al, 2020;Rizzo et al, 2021), F. pedrosoi, F. nubica (Las-Casas et al, 2022), H. capsulatum (Baltazar et al, 2018), M. sympodialis (Gehrmann et al, 2011), P. brasiliensis (Peres da Baltazar et al, 2021;Octaviano et al, 2022), S. brasiliensis (Ikeda et al, 2018;Campos et al, 2021), T. marneffei (Yang et al, 2021) and T. interdigitale (Bitencourt et al, 2018).…”