Fascinating Molecular and Immune Escape Mechanisms in the Treatment of STIs (Syphilis, Gonorrhea, Chlamydia, and Herpes Simplex)

Scurtu, Lucian G.; Jinga, Viorel; Simionescu, Olga

doi:10.3390/ijms23073550

Cited by 12 publications

(6 citation statements)

References 143 publications

(157 reference statements)

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“…CT/HPV co-infection and the potential synergistic role of these infections in cervical carcinogenesis were highlighted previously [35,46,47,129,140,144,145]. CT GroEL, a marker of CT persistence has been associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer [143].…”

Section: Interaction Of Chlamydia Trachomatis With Human Papillomavir...mentioning

confidence: 86%

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When Bacteria and Viruses Collide: A Tale of Chlamydia trachomatis and Sexually Transmitted Viruses

Ghasemian,

Harding-Esch,

Mabey

et al. 2023

Viruses

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The global incidence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) remains high, with the World Health Organization (WHO) estimating that over 1 million people acquire STIs daily. STIs can lead to infertility, pregnancy complications, and cancers. Co-infections with multiple pathogens are prevalent among individuals with an STI and can lead to heightened infectivity and more severe clinical manifestations. Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) is the most reported bacterial STI worldwide in both men and women, and several studies have demonstrated co-infection of CT with viral and other bacterial STIs. CT is a gram-negative bacterium with a unique biphasic developmental cycle including infectious extracellular elementary bodies (EBs) and metabolically active intracellular reticulate bodies (RBs). The intracellular form of this organism, RBs, has evolved mechanisms to persist for long periods within host epithelial cells in a viable but non-cultivable state. The co-infections of CT with the most frequently reported sexually transmitted viruses: human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human papillomavirus (HPV), and herpes simplex virus (HSV) have been investigated through in vitro and in vivo studies. These research studies have made significant strides in unraveling the intricate interactions between CT, these viral STIs, and their eukaryotic host. In this review, we present an overview of the epidemiology of these co-infections, while specifically delineating the underlying mechanisms by which CT influences the transmission and infection dynamics of HIV and HSV. Furthermore, we explore the intricate relationship between CT and HPV infection, with a particular emphasis on the heightened risk of cervical cancer. By consolidating the current body of knowledge, we provide valuable insights into the complex dynamics and implications of co-infection involving CT and sexually transmitted viruses.

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Section: Interaction Of Chlamydia Trachomatis With Human Papillomavir...mentioning

confidence: 86%

“…HSV is a double-stranded DNA virus from the family Herpesviridae that infects epithelial cells and neurons [ 145 ]. HSV-1 is transmitted by oral-to-oral contact and causes oral herpes, while HSV-2 is transmitted sexually and causes genital herpes.…”

Section: Co-infections Of Chlamydia Trachomatis An...mentioning

confidence: 99%

When Bacteria and Viruses Collide: A Tale of Chlamydia trachomatis and Sexually Transmitted Viruses

Ghasemian,

Harding-Esch,

Mabey

et al. 2023

Viruses

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…The transformation of RBs back into EBs occurs when the inclusion containing RBs reaches a critical volume and experiences nutrient and ATP depletion. The newly formed EBs are then released into the extracellular environment, initiating another round of infection (Scurtu et al, 2022). However, similar to mycoplasma, limited research has been conducted exploring the energy metabolism of chlamydia within the host cell.…”

Section: Conclusion and Perspectivementioning

confidence: 99%

Unveiling the stealthy tactics: mycoplasma’s immune evasion strategies

Wang,

Liang,

Chen

et al. 2023

Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol.

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Mycoplasmas, the smallest known self-replicating organisms, possess a simple structure, lack a cell wall, and have limited metabolic pathways. They are responsible for causing acute or chronic infections in humans and animals, with a significant number of species exhibiting pathogenicity. Although the innate and adaptive immune responses can effectively combat this pathogen, mycoplasmas are capable of persisting in the host, indicating that the immune system fails to eliminate them completely. Recent studies have shed light on the intricate and sophisticated defense mechanisms developed by mycoplasmas during their long-term co-evolution with the host. These evasion strategies encompass various tactics, including invasion, biofilm formation, and modulation of immune responses, such as inhibition of immune cell activity, suppression of immune cell function, and resistance against immune molecules. Additionally, antigen variation and molecular mimicry are also crucial immune evasion strategies. This review comprehensively summarizes the evasion mechanisms employed by mycoplasmas, providing valuable insights into the pathogenesis of mycoplasma infections.

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“…Mestrovic et al have reported that azithromycin resistance, in vitro , could be raised through mutations in Ct 23S rRNA genes [ 79 ]. In addition, tetracycline resistance is developed by tet(M) gene mutations [ 80 ]. Benamri and colleagues described the fact that fluoroquinolones resistance could be developed via gyrA, parC, and ygeD gene mutations [ 81 ].…”

Section: Treatment Failure and Novel Approachesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Therapeutic Options for Chlamydia trachomatis Infection: Present and Future

et al. 2022

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Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), such as Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) infection, have serious consequences for sexual and reproductive health worldwide. Ct is one of the most common sexually transmitted bacterial infections in the world, with approximately 129 million new cases per year. C. trachomatis is an obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium. The infection is usually asymptomatic, notwithstanding, it could also be associated with severe sequels and complications, such as chronic pain, infertility, and gynecologic cancers, and thus there is an urgent need to adequately treat these cases in a timely manner. Consequently, beyond its individual effects, the infection also impacts the economy of the countries where it is prevalent, generating a need to consider the hypothesis of implementing Chlamydia Screening Programs, a decision that, although it is expensive to execute, is a necessary investment that unequivocally will bring financial and social long-term advantages worldwide. To detect Ct infection, there are different methodologies available. Nucleic acid amplification tests, with their high sensitivity and specificity, are currently the first-line tests for the detection of Ct. When replaced by other detection methods, there are more false negative tests, leading to underreported cases and a subsequent underestimation of Ct infection’s prevalence. Ct treatment is based on antibiotic prescription, which is highly associated with drug resistance. Therefore, currently, there have been efforts in line with the development of alternative strategies to effectively treat this infection, using a drug repurposing method, as well as a natural treatment approach. In addition, researchers have also made some progress in the Ct vaccine development over the years, despite the fact that it also necessitates more studies in order to finally establish a vaccination plan. In this review, we have focused on the therapeutic options for treating Ct infection, expert recommendations, and major difficulties, while also exploring the possible avenues through which to face this issue, with novel approaches beyond those proposed by the guidelines of Health Organizations.

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Fascinating Molecular and Immune Escape Mechanisms in the Treatment of STIs (Syphilis, Gonorrhea, Chlamydia, and Herpes Simplex)

Cited by 12 publications

References 143 publications

When Bacteria and Viruses Collide: A Tale of Chlamydia trachomatis and Sexually Transmitted Viruses

When Bacteria and Viruses Collide: A Tale of Chlamydia trachomatis and Sexually Transmitted Viruses

Unveiling the stealthy tactics: mycoplasma’s immune evasion strategies

Therapeutic Options for Chlamydia trachomatis Infection: Present and Future

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