Fullerene Commercial Vision

Withers, James C.; Loutfy, Raouf O.; Lowe, Timothy P.

doi:10.1080/15363839708011971

Cited by 69 publications

(36 citation statements)

References 27 publications

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“…Taking the base-case scenario for soot production ($6.54/lb) and assuming a 10% selectivity for C 60 (observed in the diffusion flames in Section 3.2.2.1), gives a base fullerene price of about $65/lb. Taking another conservative estimate that extracting and purifying the fullerenes will cost the same as production [111], a final fullerene price tag of $130/lb is estimated, which is consistent with previous analysis [108].…”

Section: Implications For Fullerene Price Andfullerenic Soot Industrysupporting

confidence: 76%

“…It is estimated that current C 60 prices may be low enough for expensive applications, such as those in the pharmaceutical industry, but for cheaper uses, such as electronics and polymers, the price would need to drop to at least 10¢ per gram and maybe as low as 1¢ per gram [105,107]. Using the current predominant method for commercial production of fullerenes [15], it has been estimated that the fullerene cost could drop no lower than 25¢ per gram [108], and probably not even that low [109].…”

Section: Commercial Production Offullerenesmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Combustion synthesis of fullerenes and fullerenic nanostructures

Goel

Hebgen

Sande

et al. 2002

Carbon

117

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Fullerenes are molecules comprised entirely of sp 2 -bonded carbon atoms arranged in pentagonal and hexagonal rings to form a hollow, closed-cage structure. Buckyballs, a subset which contains C 60 and C 70 , are single-shell molecules while fullerenic nanostructures can contain many shells and over 300 carbon atoms. Both fullerenes and nanostructures have an array of applications in a wide variety of fields, including medical and consumer products. Fullerenes were discovered in 1985 and were first isolated from the products of a laminar low-pressure premixed benzene/oxygen/argon flame operating at fuel-rich conditions in 1991. Flame studies indicated that fullerene yields depend on operating parameters such as temperature, pressure, residence time, and equivalence ratio. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) showed that the soot contains nanostructures, including onions and nanotubes.Although flame conditions for forming fullerenes have been identified, the process has not been optimized and many flame environments of potential interest are unstudied. Mechanistic characteristics of fullerene formation remain poorly understood and cost estimation of large-scale production has not been performed. Accordingly, this work focused on: 1) studying fullerene formation in diffusion and premixed flames under new conditions to identify optimal parameters; 2) investigating the reaction of fullerenes with soot; 3) positively identifying C 60 molecules in HRTEM by tethering them to carbon black; and 4) providing a cost estimation for industrial fullerenic soot production.Samples of condensable material from laminar low-pressure benzene/argon/oxygen diffusion flames were collected and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and HRTEM. The highest concentration of fullerenes in a flame was always detected just above the height where the fuel is consumed. The percentage of fullerenes in condensable material increases with decreasing pressure and the fullerene content of flames with similar cold gas velocities shows a strong dependence on length. A shorter flame, resulting from higher dilution or lower pressure, favors the formation of fullerenes rather than soot, exhibited by the lower amount of soot and precursors in such flames. This indicates a stronger correlation of fullerene consumption to soot levels than of fullerene formation to precursor concentration. The maximum flame temperature seems to be of minor importance in formation. The overall highest amount of fullerenes was found for a surprisingly high dilution of fuel with argon. The HRTEM analysis showed an increase of the curvature of the carbon layers, and hence increased fullerenic character, with increasing distance from the burner up to the point of maximum fullerene concentration, after which it decreases, consistent with the HPLC analysis. The soot shows highly ordered regions that appear to have been cells of fullerenic nanostructure formation. The samples also included fullerenic nanostructures such as tubes and sp...

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Section: Implications For Fullerene Price Andfullerenic Soot Industrysupporting

confidence: 76%

Section: Commercial Production Offullerenesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Combustion synthesis of fullerenes and fullerenic nanostructures

Goel

Hebgen

Sande

et al. 2002

Carbon

117

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“…Because of the availability, affordability, and unique characteristics, fullerenes have a bright future for many biological and non-biological applications [25][26][27] . In real life, fullerene-containing products already made it to the market and are now available for mass consumption 16,17 .…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In past years, C 60 was extensively studied as an ideal candidate for its potential applications in many fields, such as a starting material for biomedicine, superhard materials, fullerene-containing polymers, lubricants, catalysts, and solar cells [25][26][27] . Adding functional groups (-OH, -COOH, -NH 2 ) was also considered for biological and biochemical applications, including DNA photocleavage, drug delivery systems, enzyme inhibitors, diagnostic contrast agents, and antimicrobial and anticancer therapeutics [28][29][30][31][32][33][34] .…”

Section: Nanoparticlesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Nano-C60 and hydroxylated C60: Their impacts on the environment

Jung

Wang

Jang

2009

Toxicol. Environ. Health. Sci.

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Because of their broad applications, nanoparticles became "the next big thing" throughout the industry. C 60 belongs to a family of fullerenes. With increasing affordability and availability, fullerenes are already used in many consumer products and under extensive studies to be used in more products. As such, there is an increased risk of releasing fullerenes into the environment. C 60 forms colloidal aggregates (nano-C 60 ) upon contact with water, which can interact with biological systems. Some derivatized C 60 can form colloidal aggregates of various sizes in water, depending on the surface chemistry. Recently, there were controversies on the toxicities of water suspensions of fullerenes and their derivatives and the mechanisms underlying their toxicities. Before discussing potential benefits of nanotechnology, it is important to correctly assess the risks and determine the impacts. In this review, we focus on controversies on the toxicities of nano-C 60 and hydroxylated C 60 and their potential risks on biological systems.

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“…As can be seen, this type of powder has a very well ordered structure of carbon atoms and it is quite different from the structure of mixed fullerenes. The details on commercial manufacturing of fullerene-type carbon powders that were predicted, observed and synthesized by Osawa, Kroto, Smalley, Huffman, Kratschmer, and others during the 1970s to 1990s can be found in reference 16.…”

Section: Characterization By Electron Microscopy and X-ray Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%