Graphene Oxide Loaded with Protocatechuic Acid and Chlorogenic Acid Dual Drug Nanodelivery System for Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Therapeutic Application

Abstract

Hepatocellular carcinoma or hepatoma is a primary malignant neoplasm that responsible for 75–90% of all liver cancer in humans. Nanotechnology introduced the dual drug nanodelivery method as one of the initiatives in nanomedicine for cancer therapy. Graphene oxide (GO) loaded with protocatechuic acid (PCA) and chlorogenic acid (CA) have shown some anticancer activities in both passive and active targeting. The physicochemical characterizations for nanocomposites were conducted. Cell cytotoxicity assay and lactate dehydrogenase were conducted to estimate cell cytotoxicity and the severity of cell damage. Next, nanocomposite intracellular drug uptake was analyzed using a transmission electron microscope. The accumulation and localization of fluorescent-labelled nanocomposite in the human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cells were analyzed using a fluorescent microscope. Subsequently, Annexin V- fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)/propidium iodide analysis showed that nanocomposites induced late apoptosis in HepG2 cells. Cell cycle arrest was ascertained at the G2/M phase. There was the depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential and an upregulation of reactive oxygen species when HepG2 cells were induced by nanocomposites. In conclusion, HepG2 cells treated with a graphene oxide–polyethylene glycol (GOP)–PCA/CA–FA dual drug nanocomposite exhibited significant anticancer activities with less toxicity compared to pristine protocatechuic acid, chlorogenic acid and GOP–PCA/CA nanocomposite, may be due to the utilization of a folic acid-targeting nanodrug delivery system.

Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using the extract of spent coffee used for paper-based hydrogen peroxide sensing device

“…Malik et al 30 detected a semicrystalline and a small amorphous peak of PVA at 19.5° and 39° to 40°, respectively. For ex-SCG, the peaks in the range of 20° to 80° can be assigned to chlorogenic acid 38 , caffeic acid 39 , and the bioorganic phase of ex-SCG 40 . In the case of AgNPs, the XRD pattern of Ag crystals consisted of four peaks in the range 2 θ = 20° to 80°, which correspond to reflections of the (111), (200), (220), and (311) planes from the face-centered cubic unit cell.…”

Recent Progress in Understanding the Action of Natural Compounds at Novel Therapeutic Drug Targets for the Treatment of Liver Cancer

“…The level of phosphorylated JNK also increased upon treatment with WB ( 47 ), leading to elevated Bad levels; thus, WB likely induced apoptosis via the Ras/JNK pathway. Increased levels of phosphorylated p38 were observed upon treatment with protocatechuic acid (PCA) ( 79 ) and furanodiene ( 51 ), indicating that these two drugs induce apoptosis by promoting p38 MAPK signalling. In contrast, FKB ( 45 ) could inhibit p38 but also induce apoptosis likely because although p38 may be involved in apoptosis, inhibiting p38 decreases the level of Bcl-2, which is an anti-apoptotic protein.…”

Advances in Biologically Applicable Graphene-Based 2D Nanomaterials

“…GO loaded with protocatechuic acid (PCA) and chlorogenic acid (CA) exhibited anticancer activities in both passive and active targeting, induced late apoptosis in HepG2 cells and cell cycle at the G 2 /M phase, and caused depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential as well as an upregulation of ROS, when HepG2 cells were induced by nanocomposites. At exposure of HepG2 cells to GO−PCA/CA−FA, the dual drug nanocomposite exhibited considerable anticancer activity but less toxicity than at the application of pristine drugs or GO−PCA/CA nanocomposite, likely due to the presence of FA [ 137 ].…”