Immune Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles – New Strategies in Cancer Immunotherapy

Abstract

Immune cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) have increasingly become the focus of research due to their unique characteristics and bioinspired applications. They are lipid bilayer membrane nanosized vesicles harboring a range of immune cell-derived surface receptors and effector molecules from parental cells. Immune cell-derived EVs are important mediators of intercellular communication that regulate specific mechanisms of adaptive and innate immune responses. However, the mechanisms underlying the antitumor effects of EVs are still being explored. Importantly, immune cell-derived EVs have some unique features, including accessibility, storage, ability to pass through blood-brain and blood-tumor barriers, and loading of various effector molecules. Immune cell-derived EVs have been directly applied or engineered as potent antitumor vaccines or for the diagnosis of clinical diseases. More research applications involving genetic engineering, membrane engineering, and cargo delivery strategies have improved the treatment efficacy of EVs. Immune cell-derived EV-based therapies are expected to become a separate technique or to complement immunotherapy, radiotherapy, chemotherapy and other therapeutic modalities. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the characteristics and functions of immune cell-derived EVs derived from adaptive (CD4+ T, CD8+ T and B cells) and innate immune cells (macrophages, NK cells, DCs, and neutrophils) and discuss emerging therapeutic opportunities and prospects in cancer treatment.

The immune microenvironment and tissue engineering strategies for spinal cord regeneration

“…Various inflammatory immune cells, such as neutrophils, monocytes and microglia, are activated by cytokines or chemokines, and they rapidly infiltrate through damaged blood vessels and participate in the activities of the immune microenvironment after SCI ( Anwar et al, 2016 ; Yang et al, 2021c ). Astrocytes, microglia and oligodendrocyte progenitors subsequently proliferate.…”

Extracellular Vesicles as Novel Drug-Delivery Systems through Intracellular Communications

“…On the other hand, EVs are natural substances with low immunogenicity and biotoxicity [103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116]. Cancer-cell-derived EVs include cancer antigens according to individual cancer types, and the anti-tumor immune response is induced by the uptake of dendritic cells, which are the main antigen-presenting cells [117][118][119][120]. In particular, they have the potential to be used as a new immunotherapy for cancers for which cancer antigens have not yet been identified.…”

Emerging micro-nanotechnologies for extracellular vesicles in immuno-oncology: from target specific isolations to immunomodulation

“…183 These cells quickly move to sites with high secretion of inflammatory mediators to help terminate tumor cells. 184 Adaptive immune cells act as supporters for the innate cells to complement their functions, and these cells include lymphocytes called T cells and B cells. 184,185 They recognize TAAs to initiate a proliferative and transformative response to target tumor cells for termination.…”