Immune Response to COVID-19: Can We Benefit from the SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV Pandemic Experience?

Abstract

The global range and high fatality rate of the newest human coronavirus (HCoV) pandemic has made SARS-CoV-2 the focus of the scientific world. Next-generation sequencing of the viral genome and a phylogenetic analysis have shown the high homology of SARS-CoV-2 to other HCoVs that have led to local epidemics in the past. The experience acquired in SARS and MERS epidemics may prove useful in understanding the SARS-CoV-2 pathomechanism and lead to effective treatment and potential vaccine development. This study summarizes the immune response to SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 and focuses on T cell response, humoral immunity, and complement system activation in different stages of HCoVs infections. The study also presents the quantity and frequency of T cell responses, particularly CD4+ and CD8+; the profile of cytokine production and secretion; and its relation to T cell type, disease severity, and utility in prognostics of the course of SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 outbreaks. The role of interferons in the therapy of these infections is also discussed. Moreover, the kinetics of specific antibody production, the correlation between humoral and cellular immune response and the immunogenicity of the structural HCoVs proteins and their utility in the development of a vaccine against SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 has been updated.

SARS-CoV-2 Serum Viral Load and Prognostic Markers Proposal for COVID-19 Pneumonia in Low-Dose Radiation Therapy Treated Patients

“…Decreased serum cytokine levels have been reported to correlate with recovery from SARS-induced pneumonia. On the contrary, elevated levels of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-10 have been associated with fatal cases of SARS [36]. This cytokine response has been demonstrated with other viruses.…”

“…This cytokine response has been demonstrated with other viruses. Thus, in MERS-CoV, the increased secretion of IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, and IFN, has been documented as a consequence of an antiviral and inflammatory response [36]. In addition, it has been shown that in, MERS-CoV the cytokines IL-8 and IL-12 are produced in greater amounts compared to the response to SARS-CoV [37].…”

Reversing the trend: a scoping review of health innovation transfer or exchange from low- and middle-income countries to high-income countries

“…12 13 For instance, experiences and innovation from previous infectious respiratory epidemics such Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome(SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) in LMICs, were not given due consideration in the COVID-19 pandemic, yet they could have helped in understanding and treating COVID-19. 14 15 LMIC to HIC innovation transfer is also viewed with trepidation by some in LMICs, who fear, due to past experience, that they will be treated unfairly and unequally in the transfer of the technology due in part to the deep structural inequities and power imbalances that persist between HIC and LMIC institutional partnerships. 16 17 Therefore, this scoping review seeks to identify cases of health innovation transfer from LMICs to HICs, shedding light on the frameworks and methods used in the transfer process while also identifying the obstacles, which have been recorded.…”

“…Thus far the idea that an innovation developed for and by LMICs can be used to address health needs in a HIC is not yet a concept that everyone accepts, and it can be met with scepticism by some in HICs who believe, sometimes due to lack of information or bias, that only HICs can produce high-quality innovations 12 13. For instance, experiences and innovation from previous infectious respiratory epidemics such Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome(SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) in LMICs, were not given due consideration in the COVID-19 pandemic, yet they could have helped in understanding and treating COVID-19 14 15. LMIC to HIC innovation transfer is also viewed with trepidation by some in LMICs, who fear, due to past experience, that they will be treated unfairly and unequally in the transfer of the technology due in part to the deep structural inequities and power imbalances that persist between HIC and LMIC institutional partnerships 16 17.…”

Long-Term Health Consequences of SARS-CoV-2: Assumptions Based on SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV Infections

“…In this review paper, SARS-CoV-1, MERS and SARS-CoV-2 are studied to follow the long-term consequences of these lineage B species of coronaviruses. Table 1 represents the comparative analysis of CoVs that cause differences in the epidemic scale and the severity of the consequences [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ].…”