“…Therefore, the ICE will still be the main power resource of the vehicle in the foreseeable future (Heywood, 2018;. Also, many researchers have studied combustion models (Keskinen et al, 2016;Shi et al, 2019), heat transfer (Hongliang et al, 2016;Xu et al, 2020a), injection strategies (Shi et al, 2018;Chai et al, 2021), and emissions (Liu and Rigopoulos, 2019;Lin et al, 2021) related to internal combustion engines. While the traditional port fuel injection (PFI) engine has difficulty meeting the requirement of environment protection and economic efficiency, attention is attracted to the gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine (Wang and Shuai, 2011;Liu and Wang, 2022).…”