Indigenous institutions as adaptive measures to environmental dynamics: an ethnographic study of Loba Community of Upper Mustang, Nepal

Abstract

This paper investigates how different institutions of Loba communities of the Upper Mustang work together and facilitate the community to cope with the environmental dynamics in the region. The indigenous institutions are place-based, and their evolution is concerned with reducing vulnerability and enhancing the resilience capacity of place-based communities to cope with and adapt to local natural and socio-cultural environmental dynamics. The paper is based on anthropological fieldwork. Qualitative data were collected by applying observation and interviews. The paper presents the role of the galbo, (Lo King), ghenba (Village Chief), Lama (Monk), and dhongba (Household) as local institutions that act in close relation and make community-level decisions. The findings reveal that the King is seen as the leader whose governance best suited to the local natural environment, cultural practices, and economy. The Lama plays a major role in reinforcing local rules, while the Ghenba is an agent who mediates the Lo King and people in materializing rules and operationalizing institutional mechanisms. The Dhongbas are units of production of the local social-ecosystem that are entitled to use local resources within the context of the institution’s agreed rules, norms, and values. These local institutions are cooperating well, successfully regulating, managing, and protecting agricultural, forest, and pasture lands, and maintaining the monuments in Lo-manthang for centuries. However, recent social-environmental dynamics such as climate change, migration, and modernization are reducing the relevancies of traditional norms and practices. Nevertheless, the institutions are working hard to continue their existence by frequently modifying their rules and norms.

The Trans-Himalayan Livelihood: Opportunities and Challenges in Tourism Development in Upper Mustang, Nepal

“…Th ey work during the time to haul manure to the fi eld and during the time of crop harvest. During harvesting season, Lobas work day and night as they are given very limited time by the Ghenba institution (Khattri, 2021;Khattri & Pandey, 2023). Th e harvest period is usually two weeks given by Ghenba; to do a timely harvest, they even need to hire labor from outside their village.…”

“…Th e scenic attraction and spiritual value of the Himalayan region in Nepal greatly attract nature lovers, spiritual practitioners, and adventure tourists. However, the people living around the mountains and Himalayas have developed a unique livelihood through adaptation to their local environment (Khattri, 2021;Khattri & Pandey, 2021;Khattri & Pandey, 2023).Th e natural capital of mountain regions is considered remote or inaccessible, fragile, full of diversity, specifi c niche of the people and place, and marginality (Khattri, 2021). Along with the rich natural capitals, mountain people's livelihood greatly interests tourists.…”

Stakeholder Synergies for Enhancing Community-based Tourism Development

“…The first author collected the data and information under the MPhil research project (Gautam, 2022). Field observation was one of the principal methods of collecting primary data (Khattri & Pandey, 2023). Open-ended questionnaires with homestay owners, local history narrators, historians, and people's representative respondents were employed for the study.…”