Inflammatory Response in COVID-19 Depending on the Severity of the Disease and the Vaccination Status

Abstract

The aim of this study was to analyze the serum concentration of interleukin-6 (IL-6), C-reactive protein (CRP), D-dimer, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), ferritin, and procalcitonin in COVID-19 patients with different forms of the disease. We performed a prospective cohort study on 137 COVID-19 consecutive patients, divided into four groups according to the severity of the disease as follows: 30 patients in the mild form group, 49 in the moderate form group, 28 in the severe form group, and 30 in the critical form group. The tested parameters were correlated with COVID-19 severity. Significant differences were registered between the form of COVID-19 depending on the vaccination status, between LDH concentrations depending on the virus variant, and in IL-6, CRP, and ferritin concentrations and vaccination status depending on the gender. ROC analysis revealed that D-dimer best predicted COVID-19 severe forms and LDH predicted the virus variant. Our findings confirmed the interdependence relationships observed between inflammation markers in relation to the clinical severity of COVID-19, with all the tested biomarkers increasing in severe and critical COVID-19. IL-6, CRP, ferritin, LDH, and D-dimer were increased in all COVID-19 forms. These inflammatory markers were lower in Omicron-infected patients. The unvaccinated patients developed more severe forms compared to the vaccinated ones, and a higher proportion of them needed hospitalization. D-dimer could predict a severe form of COVID-19, while LDH could predict the virus variant.

Evaluation of CoVid-19 infection among vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals using biochemical markers

“…Fatima et al 2022 [ 19 ] reported the similar findings that, the mean values of D-dimer and serum troponin-1 were higher for unvaccinated individuals (1.2, 0.25) than fully vaccinated individuals (0.8, 0.05). Trofin et al 2023 [ 20 ] reported the higher mean values of CRP levels in vaccinated individuals of CoVid-19 infection. The mean value of Platelet levels in unvaccinated CoVid-19 infected group (4.34±6.6) was higher than vaccinated group (1.51±4.32) and these results agreed with the findings of Ostrowski et al 2021 [ 21 ].…”

Long‐term risk of herpes zoster following COVID‐19: A retrospective cohort study of 2 442 686 patients

“…We suggest that the authors classify the severity of COVID-19 by incorporating diagnostic codes of other comorbid conditions or the types of medications administered to patients. 2,3 This approach may help elucidate the risk of subsequent herpes zoster in COVID-19 patients across various severity levels.…”

“…Wen-Bin Yeh 2 Hui-Yuan Chen 3 Su-Boon Yong 4 1 School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan 2 Department of Emergency Medicine,…”

COVID-19 Pandemic: Therapeutic Strategies and Vaccines

“…The study by Trofin et al aimed to examine the serum concentrations of interleukin-6 (IL-6), C-reactive protein (CRP), D-dimer, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), ferritin, and procalcitonin in COVID-19 patients with varying disease severity [ 43 ]. A prospective cohort study was conducted, involving 137 consecutive COVID-19 patients, who were categorized into four groups based on disease severity: 30 patients with mild symptoms, 49 with moderate symptoms, 28 with severe symptoms, and 30 with critical symptoms.…”