“…Furthermore, the passive operation of IRS without amplifiers enables the communication systems to efficiently operate energy [ 17 , 18 , 21 , 32 , 33 ]. Therefore, the IRS technique has been vigorously applied to various wireless communication systems, such as the multi-user multiple-input single-output (MISO) systems [ 5 , 34 , 35 ], secure-communication systems [ 6 , 7 , 8 ], multi-cell MISO systems [ 9 ], broadcasting systems [ 10 , 36 ], multi-group multicast MISO systems [ 14 ], non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) systems [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 22 ], millimeter-wave systems [ 15 , 16 , 37 ], and cognitive radio or symbiotic radio systems [ 38 , 39 ]. The majority of IRS techniques have mainly been applied to beamforming systems by exploiting the channel state information (CSI) at the transmitter [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 39 ].…”