Large marine ecosystems and associated new approaches to regional, transboundary and ‘high seas’ management

Polycentricity and Regional Ocean Governance: Implications for the Emerging UN Agreement on Marine Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction

“…This fragmentation can be exacerbated as sectoral institutions via their members often act on divergent and conflicting principles and values (Barkin et al, 2018;Yadav and Gjerde, 2020) and risk tolerances for environmental harm (Rice and Garcia, 2011), with few interactions and thus poor sharing of knowledge among key ocean stakeholders (Vousden, 2015;Harrison, 2017;Alexander and Haward, 2019;Gjerde and Wright, 2019;UNEP-WCMC, 2019). Power dynamics and asymmetries may further influence outcomes.…”

“…The geographical extent of an LME is based on ecological criteria: (1) bathymetry, (2) hydrography, (3) productivity, and (4) trophic relationships (Sherman, 1994;Vousden, 2015). LMEs mainly consist of EEZs and territorial waters only (coastal State maritime zones).…”

“…Implementation of tools that could enhance cross-sectoral integration focused on ocean health and resilience, such as ecosystem-based integrated ocean management (Lieberknecht, 2020) or Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) remain weak in ABNJ (UNEP-WCMC, 2019). International or transboundary interactions that are required for effective management of the ocean continue to face the "Tragedy of the Commons" problem which refers to the theory that actors who operate individually and on the basis of their own self-interest, would act contrary to the greater good of a larger stakeholder group by exhausting a common resource for their own respective individual advantages (Hardin, 1968;Basurto and Ostrom, 2009;Vousden, 2015;Gjerde and Harden-Davies, 2018). The governance of ocean resources and marine biodiversity represents a typical collective action problem where individual goals may be in conflict with broader societal goals, but also where polycentricity has potential for providing solutions (Olson, 1965;Schoon et al, 2015;Bodin, 2017).…”

“…Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) are relatively large regions of ocean (approximately 200,000 km 2 or higher), which are adjacent to the continents in coastal waters and where primary productivity is mostly greater than in open oceans (CBD, 2009;Rochette et al, 2015;Vousden, 2015;Wright et al, 2017). Currently, 66 LMEs have been recognized globally on the basis of a concept developed by the United States' National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (Fanning et al, 2015;UNEP, 2016).…”

“…Currently, 66 LMEs have been recognized globally on the basis of a concept developed by the United States' National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (Fanning et al, 2015;UNEP, 2016). The physical extent of an LME is not determined on the basis of geopolitical or economic factors, but on four ecological criteria instead: (1) bathymetry, (2) hydrography, (3) productivity, and (4) trophic relationships (Sherman, 1994;Vousden, 2015). The GEF has played a significant role in promoting the concept of LMEs through 18 LME projects and initiatives addressing 24 LMEs (Mahon et al, 2011;Vousden, 2015;UNEP, 2016;Harvey et al, 2017).…”