Lead isotope and geochemical analyses of copper-based metal artefacts from the Iron Age water burial in Levänluhta, Western Finland

Pitfalls and Possibilities of Patinated Bronze: The Analysis of Pre-Roman Italian Armour Using pXRF

“…When compared to other methods, such as multicollector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) and electron probe microanalyser (EPMA), the measurement of some materials, such as copper, by pXRF has still demonstrated similar accuracy under certain conditions [23,28,33,34]. Cleaned copper has shown to provide similar results between destructive methods and pXRF [23,28]. Dussubieux and Walder [34] were able to distinguish American native copper from European copper fragments using pXRF alone and on uncleaned surfaces.…”

“…The aim of the studies by Pernicka and Merkel was to investigate the feasibility of determining the provenance of different copper sources by elemental composition alone, which could be used to discuss larger processes of resource availability and trade and exchange. Complications caused by patination, both on the surface and in the core of the metal, meant that this was largely ineffective and there are more suitable methods, such as lead isotope analysis, that can be used for these purposes (e.g., [23]). However, the work of Pernicka and Merkel clearly demonstrates the range of issues and complexities which arise during all stages of the life-cycle of, not only a bronze artefact, but also the ore it is made from and where and how it is deposited.…”

“…Due to the issues caused by patina, elemental characterization of bronze alloys has therefore often been a destructive process, where items are cleaned to remove the patina or the item is cut or drilled to access the core or 'base alloy' (e.g., [25]). As is often the case and often cited as the case (e.g., [23]), the destructive sampling of objects from antiquity is not possible (or indeed desirable) due to the aesthetic value of the object, or indeed the object's integrity, both physically and as an excavated item existing in its modern context. The value of destructive analysis is therefore often debatable and its utility certainly depends on what the investigator wishes to discover, as well as the nature of the object itself.…”

“…As pXRF analyses are often carried out on unmodified artefact surfaces, the results do not necessarily represent the bulk composition of the core metal alone but also include the composition of surface patinas, which can vary considerably in extent. When compared to other methods, such as multicollector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) and electron probe microanalyser (EPMA), the measurement of some materials, such as copper, by pXRF has still demonstrated similar accuracy under certain conditions [23,28,33,34]. Cleaned copper has shown to provide similar results between destructive methods and pXRF [23,28].…”

Re‐analysis of the Levänluhta skeletal material: Sex and stature estimation of individuals in an Iron Age water burial in Finland

“…Because the skeletal remains were commingled, bones could not be directly associated with each other and were analyzed individually. The re‐analysis was part of a multidisciplinary project investigating the skeletal material with more precise methods including aDNA, stable isotopes, and geochemical analyses (Holmqvist‐Sipilä, Wessman, Mänttäri, & Lahaye, 2019; Oinonen et al, 2020; Sikora et al, 2019; Wessman et al, 2018). Because previous investigations either focused on a restricted sample of os coxae and long bones (Niskanen, 2006) or used inappropriate reference materials in sex and stature estimation (Formisto, 1993), the current skeletal analysis was necessary to clarify the demography of the Levänluhta site.…”