Magnetic resonance imaging and computer tomography of brain lesions in water buffaloes and cattle stunned with handguns or captive bolts

Cattle stunning with a penetrative captive bolt device: A review

“…However, the magnetic resonance and computer tomography study conducted by Schwenk et al. () revealed only slight damage to the brain.…”

“…According to Schwenk et al. (), conventional stunning devices have a bolt length of 90–120 mm. Pneumatic stunning devices are equipped with bolts of larger diameter and length and, therefore, greater weight (Table ).…”

“…A longer bolt has the potential to penetrate deeper into the brain tissue and cause damage (Figures and ). On the other hand, longer bolts consume a great deal of energy when retracted back into the barrel of the device (Schwenk et al., ).…”

“…Schwenk et al. () measured distances of 83.0–105.9 mm (median 86.4 mm) from the outside of the bone in the frontal region to the thalamus. A median value for this distance of 84.7 mm was found in young bulls, and a distance of 98.1 mm in bulls older than 30 months.…”

“…The areas of the brain engaged in consciousness are the cerebral cortex and the thalamus which together make up the thalamocortical complex controlled by the brain stem (Verhoeven et al., ). Consciousness arises from the thalamocortical projections (Schwenk et al., ). A properly functioning brain stem and thalamus are fundamental to the maintenance of consciousness, and damage to either of these areas may cause a rapid loss of consciousness.…”