Main Cations and Cellular Biology of Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury

Abstract

Traumatic spinal cord injury is a life-changing condition with a significant socio-economic impact on patients, their relatives, their caregivers, and even the community. Despite considerable medical advances, there is still a lack of options for the effective treatment of these patients. The major complexity and significant disabling potential of the pathophysiology that spinal cord trauma triggers are the main factors that have led to incremental scientific research on this topic, including trying to describe the molecular and cellular mechanisms that regulate spinal cord repair and regeneration. Scientists have identified various practical approaches to promote cell growth and survival, remyelination, and neuroplasticity in this part of the central nervous system. This review focuses on specific detailed aspects of the involvement of cations in the cell biology of such pathology and on the possibility of repairing damaged spinal cord tissue. In this context, the cellular biology of sodium, potassium, lithium, calcium, and magnesium is essential for understanding the related pathophysiology and also the possibilities to counteract the harmful effects of traumatic events. Lithium, sodium, potassium—monovalent cations—and calcium and magnesium—bivalent cations—can influence many protein–protein interactions, gene transcription, ion channel functions, cellular energy processes—phosphorylation, oxidation—inflammation, etc. For data systematization and synthesis, we used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyzes (PRISMA) methodology, trying to make, as far as possible, some order in seeing the “big forest” instead of “trees”. Although we would have expected a large number of articles to address the topic, we were still surprised to find only 51 unique articles after removing duplicates from the 207 articles initially identified. Our article integrates data on many biochemical processes influenced by cations at the molecular level to understand the real possibilities of therapeutic intervention—which must maintain a very narrow balance in cell ion concentrations. Multimolecular, multi-cellular: neuronal cells, glial cells, non-neuronal cells, but also multi-ionic interactions play an important role in the balance between neuro-degenerative pathophysiological processes and the development of effective neuroprotective strategies. This article emphasizes the need for studying cation dynamics as an important future direction.

Hydrogen Sulfide: An Emerging Regulator of Oxidative Stress and Cellular Homeostasis—A Comprehensive One-Year Review

“…H 2 S has garnered considerable attention as an endogenous gaseous signaling molecule that is a critical regulator of cellular homeostasis. Cell homeostasis refers to maintaining a stable, constant cell condition governed by a complex network of regulatory mechanisms [ 92 , 93 ]. H 2 S, acting as a gasotransmitter, has been increasingly involved in numerous physiological processes integral to maintaining cellular homeostasis [ 10 , 94 ].…”

The role of immune cells and associated immunological factors in the immune response to spinal cord injury

“…This is followed by a secondary injury cascade that develops over the subsequent weeks and/or months. This involves vascular dysfunction ( 5 ), ischemia ( 6 ), excitotoxicity ( 7 ), ionic dysregulation ( 8 ), oxidative stress ( 9 ), neurotransmitter toxicity ( 10 ), lipid peroxidation ( 11 ), necrosis/apoptosis ( 12 ), immune-inflammatory response ( 13 ), and Wallerian degeneration and scar formation ( 14 ). These biological responses in secondary injury cause further damage to the spinal cord.…”

A dynamic nomogram for predicting the probability of irreversible neurological dysfunction after cervical spinal cord injury: research based on clinical features and MRI data

“…In developed countries, the total direct cost of care for patients with SCI exceeds billions of dollars annually, with an average lifetime cost of between $ 500,000 and $ 2 million for a patient with SCI [ 6 , 7 ]. Although modern medicine is sufficiently advanced, effective treatment options for these patients are still lacking, and their prognosis is also challenging to grasp [ 8 ].…”