Monitoring and factors affecting levels of airborne and water bromoform in chlorinated seawater swimming pools

Abstract

Water and air quality of eight seawater swimming pools using chlorine disinfection was measured during four sampling campaigns, spread on one full-year, and in four thalassotherapy centers located in Southeast of France. Concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs) in air and in water as well as concentrations of parameters, including nonpurgeable organic carbon (NPOC), free residual chlorine (Cl), pH, Kjeldhal Nitrogen (KN), salinity, conductivity, bromide ions and, water and air temperature, were measured. Water and air samples were collected in triplicates morning - at the opening of the pools -, noon and night - at the closing of the pools -, in summer and winter. Data analysis was performed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and rotated component matrix, from both data quality and other parameters such as TOC, aromaticity (UV), pH, hygrometry, and free residual chlorine (Cl). This statistical analysis demonstrates a high correlation between TOC, Cl and UV and THM levels found in air and water, particularly for the major ones (CHBr in water 300.0μg/L mean, 1029.0μg/L maximum; CHBr in air: 266.1μg/m mean, 1600.0μg/m maximum, and CHClBr in water: 18.9μg/L mean, 81.0μg/L maximum; CHClBr in air: 13.6μg/m mean, 150.0μg/m maximum). These high levels of bromoform (CHBr) are particularly worrisome in such health institutions, even these levels do not exceed the Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) of 5mg/m as an 8hour time-weighted average currently fixed by various administrations, such as Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).

Human exposure to air contaminants in sports environments

“…Bromoform is the most abundant trihalomethane (THM) compound in seawater swimming pools, and measured levels of bromoform (CHBr 3 ) in those kinds of pools are particularly alarming. Consequently, it seems important to determine the occupants exposure to bromoform (and to the other THM), not only in water but also in air 164 . The measured values of bromoform exceeded frequently the recommended value of 350 µg/m 3 201…”

“…In indoor chlorinated swimming pool facilities located in Southern Europe, the reported mean concentration of indoor bromoform (CHBr 3 ), dibromochloromethane (CHClBr 2 ), chloroform (CHCl 3 ), and bromodichloromethane (CHBrCl 2 ) was 0.4 µg/m 3 ‐11.2 µg/m 3 ; 1.9 µg/m 3 ‐13.2 µg/m 3 ; 35.0 µg/m 3 ‐54.5 µg/m 3 ; and 4.2 µg/m 3 ‐14.6 µg/m 3 , respectively 165,179 . In indoor seawater swimming pools located in France, the reported mean concentration of indoor bromoform (CHBr 3 ) and dibromochloromethane (CHClBr 2 ) were 200 µg/m 3 (max 1600 µg/m 3 ) and 13 µg/m 3 (max 150 µg/m 3 ), respectively 164,172 . Bromoform is the most abundant trihalomethane (THM) compound in seawater swimming pools, and measured levels of bromoform (CHBr 3 ) in those kinds of pools are particularly alarming.…”

“…Hypochlorite can also be produced from alternative disinfectants like trichloroisocyanuric acid and bromochlorodimethylhydantoin 163 . The DBPs, mainly consisting of halomethanes, especially trihalomethanes (THMs) and chloramines, can be found in pool water and in the air of indoor swimming pools 4,164‐166 . Chloroform (CHCl 3 ) is the dominant THM by mass in swimming pools, and as chloroform is a highly volatile compound, in addition to absorption via dermal uptake, it can be also inhaled 167 …”

“…163 The DBPs, mainly consisting of halomethanes, especially trihalomethanes (THMs) and chloramines, can be found in pool water and in the air of indoor swimming pools. 4,[164][165][166] Chloroform (CHCl 3 ) is the dominant THM by mass in swimming pools, and as chloroform is a highly volatile compound, in addition to absorption via dermal uptake, it can be also inhaled. 167 In indoor chlorinated swimming pool facilities, both air and water qualities are relevant issues with respect to the health of the facility users.…”

Analysis of chlorination by‐products in swimming pool water by membrane introduction mass spectrometry – Influence of water physicochemical parameters

“…Figure demonstrates that salinity does not play a significant role in MIMS analysis. However, the maximum salt concentration tested here does not ensure the absence of interference in the particular case of seawater swimming pools, where salt concentration can reach 20 g.L −1 . At higher NaCl concentrations (5,8–58 g.L −1 ), Miranda et al reported ionic strength dependence of MIMS signals for the quantification of four gases.…”