Mouldy fruits and vegetables as a source of mycotoxins: part 1

Abstract

Species of Aspergillus, Penicillium and Alternaria are major contributors to fruit and vegetable decay and to mycotoxin production during various stages of pathogenesis. The mycotoxins most commonly associated with fruits and vegetables and their products are aflatoxins, patulin, ochratoxin A and Alternaria toxins. Naturally occurring aflatoxins are found in fruits of tropical and subtropical regions where environmental conditions support growth of aflatoxigenic aspergilli. Aflatoxins in figs and dates have been associated with Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, ochratoxin A in figs has been related mainly to A. alliaceus, and ochratoxin A in wines and other grape-based products has been associated with A. carbonarius and, to a lesser extent, with A. tubingensis and A. niger. Human exposure to patulin is primarily via apple-based products, following fruit infection by Penicillium expansum. Attention has been drawn to patulin contamination in infant apple products, and in organic fruits versus conventional ones. Alternaria species, which naturally attack a wide range of harvested fruits and vegetables, are capable of producing several mycotoxins during pathogenesis. The major mycotoxins include alternariol, alternariol methyl ether, altenuene, tenuazonic acid, and altertoxin-I. Although A. alternata is regarded as the major producer of Alternaria mycotoxins, other species, such as A. citri, A. longipes, A. tenuissima, A. arborescens, may also produce these mycotoxins. Mycotoxin accumulation in fruits and vegetables may occur in the field, and during harvest, postharvest and storage. Factors affecting mycotoxin production include the fruit or vegetable type and cultivar, geographical location, climate, pre-harvest treatments, method of harvest, postharvest treatments and storage conditions. Considering geostatistics, knowledge of the ecology of the fungi, data on crop distribution and meteorological conditions, risk predicting maps have recently been drawn. The methodologies of detection and determination of mycotoxigenic moulds and of ochratoxin A in grape products, of patulin in apple products and of Alternaria mycotoxins in fruit and vegetable products, are summarised and discussed. The present review is based on the multi-author book 'Mycotoxins in Fruits and Vegetables' published by Elsevier (2008).

PCR-based assay for the detection of Alternaria species and correlation with HPLC determination of altenuene, alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether production in tomato products

“…are the most frequent fungal species invading tomatoes (Barkai-Golan & Paster, 2008;Logrieco, Moretti, & Solfrizzo, 2009), so far there are no specific regulations for any of the Alternaria toxins in foods. However, considering their potential effects on human health and the frequency of their presence in tomato products, systematic testing for Alternaria mycotoxins in these commodities is desirable to evaluate the consumer health risk (Pose et al, 2010;Terminiello et al, 2006).…”

“…Tomato constitutes the horticultural product with the highest plant processing volume in the country and it is the most extended vegetable crop with approximately 100,000 ha (MARM, 2010). Because of their thin skin, tomatoes are very susceptible to fungal decay, and Alternaria is the most common fungus on mouldy tomatoes (Barkai-Golan & Paster, 2008;Terminiello et al, 2006). Direct consumption of mouldy tomatoes by the consumer is not probable, but the presence of mouldy tomatoes being included in processed tomato products is a possibility (Andersen & Frisvad, 2004).…”

Rapid detection of tenuazonic acid in cereal and fruit juice using a lateral-flow immunochromatographic assay strip

“…Tenuazonic acid (TeA) is a mycotoxin which is produced by Alternaria spp., Pyricularia oryzae and Phoma sorghina (Barkai-Golan & Paster, 2008). TeA is the most toxic Alternaria mycotoxin (Ostry, 2008) and has carcinogenic, cytotoxic and phytotoxic properties and is acutely toxic in mammals Lee, Patriarca, & Magan, 2015;Zhou & Qiang, 2008).…”

Effect of pH and temperature in production of mycotoxins and antibiotics by phytopathogenic moulds for Persian lime (Citrus latifolia T.) in a complex lime pericarp-base medium

“…Besides from decay, the main fruit contaminant moulds have the ability to produce mycotoxins that represent a threat to human and animal health (Barkai-Golan and Paster, 2008). Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of contaminant moulds throughout the food chain (Sanzani et al, 2016).…”

“…Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of contaminant moulds throughout the food chain (Sanzani et al, 2016). Penicillium, Aspergillus and Alternaria species are major mycotoxigenic fungi that attack harvested fruits, and the mycotoxins produced by these moulds in the host tissues include patulin, aflatoxins (AF), ochratoxin A (OTA), and fumonisins (FB) (Barkai-Golan and Paster, 2008;Sanzani et al, 2016). Some of these mycotoxins receive greatest attention due to their carcinogenic, nephrotoxic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive effects (IARC, 2002).…”