Multi-faceted Commercially Sourced Pd-Supported Reduction: A View from Practical Experience

Abstract

Aim. To share our experience when working with the Pd-catalyzed hydrogenation and discuss reactions occurred contrary to our expectations, as well as express our vision of the causes for such an unusual reactivity.Results and discussion. Catalysis is a key technology and among the central themes of both petrochemical and fine chemical industries. Although extremely useful and reliable, it can sometimes astonish researchers. The paper discusses 17 intriguing cases of the catalytic hydrogenation and hydrogenolysis reactions from our practice in the High-pressure Synthesis Laboratory (Enamine Ltd.). All examples presented are characterized by peculiar performance of commercially sourced heterogeneous palladium-containing catalysts (Pd/C or Pd(OH)2). Thus, some cases were characterized by reduced activity of the catalyst (or even its complete loss), meaning that reaction conditions found before to be suitable for reduction appeared to be “broken”, and we had to search for a new, often harsher reaction setup. Curiously, it is a matter of classical Pd-catalyzed hydrogenations of N+–O– and C=C fragments. Apparently, these results indicate the heterogeneity of commercially available catalysts and are related to their fine internal structure, in particular the surface morphology. Another interesting issue the article deals with is chemoselectivity of the catalytic hydrogenation. Sometimes some reactions led to astonishing results going across theoretical views and expectations. Saturation of benzene rings instead of (or accompanying) debenzylation, breaking of the common order of hydrogenation for compounds containing several aromatic parts with different resonance energies, irreproducible experiment, obtaining of different products under the same conditions, uncommon results of Pd-catalyzed reactions is the list of interesting results, which we observed and discussed in the article. Analyzing the information available in the literature and considering all the results gathered we tend to believe that the presence of impurities of noble metals (Rh, Ru, Pt) in the catalysts used to be a possible reason for these strange findings. The study supports the general idea that commercial palladium catalysts differ in efficiency, resulting in significant differences in selectivity, reaction time, and yields. Elucidating the regularities behind such empirical results is undoubtedly an interesting area of research in the field of catalysis.Experimental part. All starting compounds exposed to hydrogenation were synthesized in Enamine Ltd. and had purity of not less than 95 %. The palladium-containing catalysts used in the experiment were purchased from 6 commercial sources within 2011 – 2022. The structure and purity of the compounds synthesized were characterized by 1H NMR spectroscopy, liquid chromatography coupled with the mass spectrometry method, elemental analysis. Chromatographic experiments revealed the purity of all compounds obtained being not less than 95 %.Conclusions. In the paper we have summarized our experience with the Pd-catalyzed hydrogenation and presented cases of unusual reactivity or unexpected outcomes of the reactions encountered in our practice. In general, complications we faced were of three types: (1) irreproducibility of the procedures most likely as the result of a changeable activity of the catalysts; (2) chemoselectivity issues when two or multireducible functional groups were present in the substrate; (3) undesirable Pd-catalyzed defunctionalization reactions. In turn, these complications led to increase in production costs, loss of time and resources. Therefore, because of this variability in the efficiency of Pd catalysts, far more efforts are required to find out the key differences between commercial sources of Pd catalysts, as well as to create protocols clearly defining the catalytic activity of each batch of the catalyst allowing to identify high-quality catalysts immediately prior to the use without wasting precious time and synthetic materials.

Advances and Challenges in Development of Transition Metal Catalysts for Heterogeneous Hydrogenation of Organic Compounds

“…Some examples of unexpected outcomes of catalytic hydrogenation from our practice were summarized in recent review. [26] The problem of reproducibility of catalyst's characteristics is well known, and several research groups have been working on developing strict procedures for obtaining catalysts with controllable and reproducible catalytic activity. [27a] Even commercial samples with the same Pd content can greatly vary from one supplier to another.…”

“…Thus, for important cases, for instance work with expensive reagents or large-scale organic processes, the catalyst is usually chosen based on preliminary testing of the commercially available species, but the tests performed in a small scale do not guarantee the desired outcome of the multigram-scale synthesis. [26] A combination of several physical methods should be used for detailed characterization of the nanoparticle-based catalysts. Such methods include transmission and scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, adsorption of N 2 and chemisorption of CO, atomic absorption spectrometry, XPS and others for determination of metal content, particles size, oxidation state of metal, etc.…”