Multidistrict Host–Pathogen Interaction during COVID-19 and the Development Post-Infection Chronic Inflammation

Abstract

Due to the presence of the ACE2 receptor in different tissues (nasopharynx, lung, nervous tissue, intestine, liver), the COVID-19 disease involves several organs in our bodies. SARS-CoV-2 is able to infect different cell types, spreading to different districts. In the host, an uncontrolled and altered immunological response is triggered, leading to cytokine storm, lymphopenia, and cellular exhaustion. Hence, respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and systemic multi-organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) are established. This scenario is also reflected in the composition of the microbiota, the balance of which is regulated by the interaction with the immune system. A change in microbial diversity has been demonstrated in COVID-19 patients compared with healthy donors, with an increase in potentially pathogenic microbial genera. In addition to other symptoms, particularly neurological, the occurrence of dysbiosis persists after the SARS-CoV-2 infection, characterizing the post-acute COVID syndrome. This review will describe and contextualize the role of the immune system in unbalance and dysbiosis during SARS-CoV-2 infection, from the acute phase to the post-COVID-19 phase. Considering the tight relationship between the immune system and the gut–brain axis, the analysis of new, multidistrict parameters should be aimed at understanding and addressing chronic multisystem dysfunction related to COVID-19.

A comparative study on two methods of ocular surface microbial sampling

“…(B) cenocepacia is an important pathogenic bacterium which causes nosocomial infections.It causes diseases such as cystic fibrosis and chronic granulomatous. Burkholderia, Chryseobacterium , and Enterobacteriaceae have been reported to predominate the lung microbiota in fatal cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection [ 18 ]. Moraxella, Pseudomonas, Bacillus , and other pathogens also detected in the aerosolization sampling.…”

Thymosin alpha 1 restores the immune homeostasis in lymphocytes during Post-Acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection

“…After three years from the first cases, it is well known that SARS-CoV-2 infection causes several alterations that have an impact on various body districts, with important and persistent symptoms after infection. Complex symptoms lasting more weeks after infection have been defined by Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC) characterized by neurological, cardiorespiratory, and others physical problems, but also social and psychological impairments [20] , [21] , [22] . In PASC individuals, persistent immune dysfunction has been demonstrated to be caused by a chronic inflammatory state.…”