Muscle Dysmorphia: An Underrecognized Form of Body Dysmorphic Disorder

Pope, Harrison G.; Gruber, Amanda J.; Choi, Precilla Y. L.; Olivardia, Roberto; Phillips, Katharine A.

doi:10.1016/s0033-3182(97)71400-2

Cited by 680 publications

(649 citation statements)

References 18 publications

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“…Another study found marked comorbidity of muscle dysmorphia with other psychiatric disorders, but did not ask participants about other BDD symptoms-leaving it unclear whether muscle dysmorphia frequently co-occurs with other forms of BDD. To our knowledge, the only previous report (Pope et al, 1997) that has examined the converse topic -muscle dysmorphia in men with BDD -found that 9.3% of 193 subjects with BDD also had apparent muscle dysmorphia. However, this observation was included in a clinical overview of muscle dysmorphia, and no details about this finding were presented.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 71%

“…This information was then presented to HGP, who was blinded to all other information (aside from knowing that all cases had some form of BDD). HGP reviewed all 63 cases and assigned a diagnosis of muscle dysmorphia to those men who appeared to meet proposed diagnostic criteria (Pope et al, 1997) (i.e., the BDD criteria noted above as applied to muscularity preoccupations). In six to eight cases, interview information was insufficiently detailed to allow diagnostic certainty; the rater made a forced-choice decision in these instances.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Muscle dysmorphia, a preoccupation with the idea that one's body is insufficiently lean or muscular, appears to be a relatively new form of body image disturbance in men that has received little investigation (Pope, Gruber, Choi, Olivardia, & Phillips, 1997;Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2000). Men with muscle dysmorphia believe that they look "puny," or "small," when in reality they look normal or may even be unusually muscular.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Indeed, the first scientific report of the syndrome, to our knowledge, termed it "reverse anorexia nervosa" (Pope, Katz, & Hudson, 1993). Subsequently, Pope et al (1997) described additional cases and proposed to rename the syndrome "muscle dysmorphia." This paper also suggested operational diagnostic criteria for diagnosing the disorder, and hypothesized that muscle dysmorphia was likely a form of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) in which the focus is on muscularity, as opposed to some other aspect of body appearance, such as hair, skin, or facial features.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Clinical features of muscle dysmorphia among males with body dysmorphic disorder

et al. 2005

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Muscle dysmorphia -a pathological preoccupation with muscularity -appears to be a form of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) with a focus on muscularity. However, little is known about muscle dysmorphia in men with BDD, and no study has compared men with BDD who do and do not report muscle dysmorphia. To explore this issue, we reviewed the histories of 63 men with BDD; we compared those rated as having a history of muscle dysmorphia with those who had BDD but not muscle dysmorphia in several domains. The 14 men with muscle dysmorphia resembled the 49 comparison men in demographic features, BDD severity, delusionality, and number of non-musclerelated body parts of concern. However, those with muscle dysmorphia were more likely to have attempted suicide, had poorer quality of life, and had a higher frequency of any substance use disorder and anabolic steroid abuse. Thus, muscle dysmorphia was associated with greater psychopathology.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 71%

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Clinical features of muscle dysmorphia among males with body dysmorphic disorder

et al. 2005

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“…Furthermore, the use of these drugs in conjunction with side effects predicts intentions for longer term AAS use. This negative reinforcement model could also be extended to the contribution of other variables associated with continued AAS use, such as body dissatisfaction, appearance anxiety, and potential psychopathology (Blouin & Goldfield, 1995;Mangweth et al, 2001;Pope, Gruber, Choi, Olivardia, & Phillips, 1997;Schwerin et al, 1996). Although these were not evaluated in the current model, having negative moods and/or body image partially removed by the use of AASs would be a logical hypothesis for future model testing of continued and potentially problematic AAS use.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Predicting intentions for long-term anabolic-androgenic steroid use among men: A covariance structure model.

Hildebrandt¹,

Langenbucher²,

Carr³

et al. 2006

Psychology of Addictive Behaviors

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Long-term use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) is associated with both positive and negative effects. The authors examined possible mechanisms by which these effects contribute to AAS satisfaction and predict intentions for future AAS use. Five hundred male AAS users completed an interactive Web-based instrument assessing the psychological and physical effects of AAS use. Covariance structure modeling was used to evaluate both direct and indirect effects of AAS consequences on satisfaction with AASs and intentions for future AAS use. Results suggest that gain in muscle mass and psychological benefits from AAS use uniquely contributed to both AAS satisfaction and intentions for future use. Side effects from AAS use also uniquely contributed to AAS satisfaction, but ancillary drug use was found to partially mediate this relationship, suggesting that the satisfaction of experienced AAS users is enhanced by their mastery of side effects through the use of ancillary drugs. The final model explained 29% of the variance in intentions for future AAS use. Mechanisms for sustained AAS use and implications for intervention and prevention strategies are discussed.

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Evolving ideals of male body image as seen through action toys

Pope

Olivardia

Gruber

et al. 1999

Int. J. Eat. Disord.

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442

172

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Objective: We hypothesized that the physiques of male action toys -small plastic figures used by children in play -would provide some index of evolving American cultural ideals of male body image. Method: We obtained examples of the most popular American action toys manufactured over the last 30 years. We then measured the waist, chest, and bicep circumference of each figure and scaled these measurements using classical allometry to the height of an actual man (1.78 m). Results: We found that the figures have grown much more muscular over time, with many contemporary figures far exceeding the muscularity of even the largest human bodybuilders. Discussion: Our observations appear to represent a "male analog" of earlier studies examining female dolls, such as Barbie. Together, these studies of children's toys suggest that cultural expectations may contribute to body image disorders in both sexes.

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Muscle Dysmorphia: An Underrecognized Form of Body Dysmorphic Disorder

Cited by 680 publications

References 18 publications

Clinical features of muscle dysmorphia among males with body dysmorphic disorder

Clinical features of muscle dysmorphia among males with body dysmorphic disorder

Predicting intentions for long-term anabolic-androgenic steroid use among men: A covariance structure model.

Evolving ideals of male body image as seen through action toys

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